Military history of New Zealand during World War I
The military history of New Zealand during World War I began in August 1914. When Britain declared war on Germany at the start of the First World War, the New Zealand Government followed without hesitation, despite its geographic isolation and small population. It was believed at the time that any declaration of war by the United Kingdom automatically included New Zealand; and the Governor (the Earl of Liverpool) announced that New Zealand was at war with Germany from the steps of Parliament on 5 August.[2][3][4]
New Zealand Expeditionary Force
The total number of New Zealand troops and nurses to serve overseas in 1914–18, excluding those in British and other Dominion forces, was 100,471, from a population of just over a million. Forty-two percent of men of military age served in the New Zealand Expeditionary Force, fighting in the Gallipoli campaign and on the Western Front. 16,697 New Zealanders were killed and 41,317 were wounded during the war – a 58 percent casualty rate.[5] Approximately a further thousand men died within five years of the war's end, as a result of injuries sustained, and 507 died while training in New Zealand between 1914 and 1918.
The First World War saw Māori soldiers serve for the first time in a major conflict with the New Zealand Army (although a number had fought in the Second Boer War when New Zealand recruiters chose to ignore British military policy of the time of disallowing 'native' soldiers). A contingent took part in the Gallipoli campaign, and later served with distinction on the Western Front as part of the New Zealand (Māori) Pioneer Battalion. 2,227 Māori and 500 Pasifika, including 150 Niueans, served with New Zealand forces in total.[6][7][8]
Outbreak of the war[edit]
On 30 July 1914, the British Admiralty informed Captain Herbert Marshall, the senior naval officer in New Zealand, by telegram that a war in Europe was likely. This followed the declaration of war made by Austria-Hungary against Serbia, the news of which threatened to bring Russia, and her allies, Britain and France, into the conflict. A War Council, which included Marshall, Prime Minister William Massey, and Major General Alexander Godley, the commandant of the New Zealand Military Forces, was formed. This authorised the commencement of certain mobilisation and defensive procedures. These included implementing inspections of incoming vessels at the four major ports, mobilisation of the garrison artillery to man the various forts around the country, and commencement of censorship. Radio stations and the sites where undersea telegraph cables came on shore were placed under guard. The cruiser HMS Philomel, on a training cruise in the Cook Strait was recalled and made ready for war, such as it could be given its rundown state. The country's small Royal Naval Reserve was called up on 2 August to help crew the cruiser.[9][10][11]
The conflict in Europe escalated in the following days when Germany declared war on Russia[12] and then on 4 August invaded Belgium. This brought France and Britain into the war in support of Belgium.[13] The outbreak of World War I was announced in the afternoon of 5 August by the Governor of New Zealand, Lord Liverpool, when he read out aloud the telegram dispatched by the Colonial Office confirming the commencement of hostilities to a crowd of 15,000 people gathered outside the old Parliament Building in Wellington. Although a self-governing Dominion, such were New Zealand's ties to Great Britain as part of the British Empire it was inherently understood that the country was automatically at war as well.[14] Massey, speaking to the crowd after Lord Liverpool's proclamation of war, urged his fellow citizens to "keep cool, stand fast, do your duty to your country and your Empire".[2]
There was bi-partisan support in Parliament for its position in standing alongside Great Britain and its Dominions; both Massey's Reform government and its Liberal opposition made strong expressions of support.[14] The leader of the Liberal Party, Joseph Ward, made it clear that the British Empire could not be uninvolved in any fighting against the Central Powers.[15] The general population, at least 20% of whom were born in Great Britain, also demonstrated keen patriotism and an appreciation that New Zealand needed to play a role in the ensuing conflict. As the news of the war spread, crowds gathered at central points in major cities and marched and cheered in support of Britain and her allies. However, the indigenous people of New Zealand, the Māori, had a more muted reaction; not having the same links to Great Britain, they were only a small proportion of the population and were not a part of mainstream society.[14][16]
Prior to the official declaration of war, the New Zealand government had offered, on 31 July, to provide an expeditionary force to the British government; this followed a similar offer made by Canada. Initially advised that this would not be required, New Zealand's offer was subsequently accepted on 7 August.[10][11]
Middle East[edit]
Following its departure from Wellington, the convoy transporting the NZEF steamed to Western Australia where it linked up with the troopships carrying the Australian Imperial Force (AIF). There was still concerns regarding the vulnerability of the troop transports to attack by the German East Asia Squadron so the convoy included an escort of three cruisers, HMS Minotaur (1906), HMS Philomel (1890), and HMAS Psyche, as well as the Japanese battlecruiser Ibuki. Together with their escorting warships, the convoy, now numbering 37 transports, sailed to Alexandria via Colombo and the Suez Canal. During the voyage, they were fortunate to have avoided SMS Emden which was near the Cocos Islands at the same time the convoy was transiting the area.[Note 2] It had been intended that the NZEF and AIF would be landed in Europe. However, following the entry of the Ottoman Empire into World War I on the side of the Central Powers, there was now a security threat to the Suez Canal. The New Zealanders and Australians were instead disembarked in Egypt to defend the Suez Canal an attack.[32][33]
In December, the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC), under Lieutenant General William Birdwood, was formed to command both the AIF and NZEF components.[Note 3] The AIF was able to field one complete Australian division, the 1st Division, and had a surplus of one each of mounted and infantry brigades. To form the second infantry division of the corps, Birdwood included the Australian brigades with the respective mounted and infantry brigades of the NZEF. This division was to be known as the New Zealand and Australian Division (NZ&A), with Godley as its commander. The headquarters staff for this formation amounted to 70 officers and 550 men. These were mostly provided by the British and it was formally part of the British Army. It was however lacking artillery, with only a single New Zealand artillery brigade available, as opposed to the conventional three that would be provided to an infantry division.[35][36]
A camp for the NZEF was established at Zeitoun, close to Cairo.[33] While the NZ&A was forming and training in Egypt, elements were committed to the defence of the Suez Canal. On 26 January 1915, the four infantry battalions of the New Zealand Infantry Brigade—the Auckland, Canterbury, Wellington, and Otago Battalions—and a supporting field ambulance were deployed in anticipation of an attack on the canal by Ottoman forces. This force was split between Ismailia and Kubri.[37] On 2 February, after the Ottomans launched a raid on the Suez Canal, elements of the brigade took part in repelling the attack, with the Canterbury Battalion suffering the division's first losses in battle, with two men being wounded, one of whom later died.[38]
Gallipoli[edit]
Background[edit]
By the end of 1914, the fighting on the Western Front had reached a stalemate, the opposing forces having dug in along a network of trenches extending between Belgium and Switzerland. Attention began to focus on opening other fronts to help break the deadlock. Winston Churchill, in his capacity as First Lord of the Admiralty, put forward plans for a naval attack on the Dardanelles. Initially rejected on the basis of being too risky, a plan for an attack on the Gallipoli peninsula was eventually approved by the War Council in January 1915. Destroying the forts that guarded the entrance to the Dardanelles would open the Black Sea's only entrance to the Mediterranean, via the Dardanelles and Bosphorus straits, to allow shipping to Russia, fighting on the Eastern Front on the side of the Allies, all year round. The Royal Navy attacked the following month but progress against the Turkish defences was slow and on 18 March, a number of vessels were sunk by mines.[39]
Consideration then turned to the possibility of making landings by Allied troops to take high ground on the portion of the Gallipoli peninsula that overlooked the Narrows, the narrowest point of the Dardanelles, and eliminate mobile artillery that guarded minefields strewn through the straits at this point. It was decided that the ANZAC Corps would take part in the operation, alongside British, Indian and French contingents. This combination of Allied forces was known as the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force (MEF) and placed under the command of General Sir Ian Hamilton. His plans called for his forces, which totalled around 75,000 men, to be landed at Cape Helles, on the southern part of the Gallipoli peninsula with the ANZACs being landed north of Gaba Tepe on the Aegean coast from where they could advance across the peninsula and prevent retreat from or reinforcement of Turkish forst further south. The French were to land at Kum Kale to prevent Turkish artillery firing on Cape Helles.[39]
Other theatres[edit]
New Zealand also contributed to the war at sea, with the New Zealand Naval Forces being a division of the Royal Navy.[65] Immediately after the start of the war, the cruiser HMS Philomel, loaned to New Zealand as a training ship, was augmented with 70 New Zealand reservists and sailed with two Royal Navy cruisers to escort the New Zealand troops sent to occupy German Samoa.[66] Later in 1914 these three ships also escorted the New Zealand Expeditionary Force to Egypt.[67]
From January 1915, Philomel patrolled the Gulf of Alexandretta in the Eastern Mediterranean, supporting several landings and sustaining three fatal casualties, one being the first New Zealander killed in action in the war. She also took part in the defence of the Suez Canal, operations in the Gulf of Aden and patrols in the Persian Gulf.[68] Although refitting from time to time at Malta[69] or Bombay kept her seaworthy,[70] age eventually forced her out of the war and in March 1917 she returned to Wellington for a major overhaul.[71]
New Zealand was not subject to any significant direct military threat during the war. Although Germany had plans for naval raids on Australia and New Zealand, the threat from her Asiatic Squadron did not eventuate, as that force moved across the Pacific before being destroyed at the Battle of the Falkland Islands.
In June 1917, a German surface raider, the SMS Wolf entered New Zealand waters. She laid two small minefields in New Zealand waters and sank two merchant ships. Her seaplane, a Friedrichshafen FF.33 overflew Invercargill and possibly Hawkes Bay.[72] One (the Port Kembla) off Farewell Spit, and another (the Wairuna) off the Kermadec Islands. Two fishing trawlers, the Nora Niven and Simplon, were fitted as minesweepers and took up sweeping duties in these areas. Another brief flurry of activity occurred when Felix von Luckner, imprisoned on Motuihe Island after being captured in the Society Islands, escaped and commandeered a small vessel before being recaptured in the Kermadec Islands.
New Zealand also contributed a wireless troop to the Mesopotamian Campaign. The Wireless Troop was formed in New Zealand and arrived at Basra in April 1916. In Mesopotamia the New Zealand troop was amalgamated with the 1st Australian Wireless Signal Squadron, forming "C" Wireless Troop of the Anzac Squadron. The troop was much affected by disease, but once in operation was attached to the Cavalry Division in the assault on Baghdad. The Wireless Troop was among the first batch of troops to enter the city on 11 March 1917. The Wireless Troop joined further operations in Mesopotamia and was then moved to Persia. In June 1917, the troop was redirected to France, where it was absorbed into the New Zealand Divisional Signal Company.
New Zealand had no air force of her own during the First World War but several hundred New Zealanders served with the Royal Flying Corps, the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) and the Royal Air Force, both as aircrew and ground crew.[73] A number of the flying personnel ended up commanding squadrons, including Major Keith Park, later to command No. 11 Group in the Battle of Britain during World War II.[73] The first New Zealand flying ace of the war was Flight Lieutenant Thomas Culling, who flew with the RNAS. He was killed in June 1917, having shot down five aircraft.[74] The highest scoring New Zealand flying ace was Captain Ronald Bannerman, who achieved 16 aerial victories, including one over a balloon. At least 70 New Zealand airmen were killed in the war, although a good proportion of these were in flying accidents rather than in action.[73]
Recruiting and conscription[edit]
On the outbreak of the war, recruitment for the New Zealand Expeditionary Force was on an entirely voluntary basis. The enthusiasm of the volunteers was such that some men were attempting to enlist even before the official announcement of hostilities. The number of volunteers was such that the authorities in London were advised that the NZEF could depart as early as 27 August although more time would be preferable. To follow the main body of the NZEF, which departed New Zealand on 16 October 1914, a series of drafts of reinforcements were dispatched, typically one a month. By the end of the war, a total of 42 drafts, totalling around 84,000 men had been sent.[75]
By early 1916, the supply of volunteers for the NZEF had slowed significantly. At the same time, the NZEF had expanded in preparation for its service on the Western Front. After efforts to stimulate volunteers failed, conscription was introduced by the New Zealand government in the form of the Military Service Act. Under this legislation, the first ballot for conscripts was held in Wellington on 16 November 1916. Men between 20 and 45 could be conscripted, subject to a medical check and limited rights of objection on conscience, family or business grounds. An individual could appeal their call-up by applying to a Military Service Board but relatively few were successful. A total of 135,000 men would be called up by war's end although only 32,700 served with the NZEF. The major proportion of the remainder were found to not be fit for service.[76][77]
Conscription was extended to Māori for the "Native Contingent" in late 1917, with the first "Māori ballot" for the Waikato district held in May 1918.[78] There was resistance in the Waikato (led by Princess Te Puea) to conscription. By the end of the war 552 Māori had been balloted, but no Māori conscripts had been sent overseas. A total of 2,227 Māori served in the war; this represented about 4.5% of the Māori population or under half of the total contribution per head of the total New Zealand population.[79]
Repatriation[edit]
Shortages of shipping, influenza[90] and strikes[91] were among causes[92] for delays in repatriating troops after the war. The frustration of the delay resulted in riots at Sling Camp in March 1919[91] and at Ismailia in July. Allied governments paid compensation for looted Egyptian shops.[90] New Zealand's share of the cost was £2,529[93] (2016 equivalent $250,000).[94]
Cemeteries and memorials[edit]
New Zealand war deaths are buried or commemorated in Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) cemeteries with other allied soldiers. Gallipoli dead are buried in 24 CWGC cemeteries in Turkey, and in CWGC cemeteries in Egypt, Gibraltar, Greece and Malta. There are memorials to the New Zealand missing on Chunuk Bair and at three CWGC cemeteries: Hill 60 Cemetery, Lone Pine Cemetery and Twelve Tree Copse Cemetery.[95]
On the Western Front missing New Zealand soldiers are commemorated in cemeteries near where they were lost rather than at the large memorials of Menin Gate and the Thiepval Memorial on the Somme. The New Zealand monuments to the missing are at Messines in Belgium and Armentierses, Longueval (Caterpillar Valley Cemetery), Grevillers, and Marfaux in France. There are four national battlefield memorials at Passchendaele, Messines, the Somme and Le Quesnoy.[96]
At least 700 New Zealanders died in England. Most of these were due to illness, disease and their wounds, and nearly 100 of these are buried at the CWGC cemetery at Brockenhurst. Another 20 or so were killed in accidents or as a result of misadventure.[97]