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Propaganda

Propaganda is communication that is primarily used to influence or persuade an audience to further an agenda, which may not be objective and may be selectively presenting facts to encourage a particular synthesis or perception, or using loaded language to produce an emotional rather than a rational response to the information that is being presented.[1] Propaganda can be found in a wide variety of different contexts.[2]

This article is about the biased form of communication. For other uses, see Propaganda (disambiguation).

In the 20th century, the English term propaganda was often associated with a manipulative approach, but historically, propaganda had been a neutral descriptive term of any material that promotes certain opinions or ideologies.[1][3]


A wide range of materials and media are used for conveying propaganda messages, which changed as new technologies were invented, including paintings, cartoons, posters, pamphlets, films, radio shows, TV shows, and websites. More recently, the digital age has given rise to new ways of disseminating propaganda, for example, bots and algorithms are currently being used to create computational propaganda and fake or biased news and spread it on social media.

Definitions[edit]

Propaganda was conceptualized as a form of influence designed to build social consensus. In the 20th century, the term propaganda emerged along with the rise of mass media, including newspapers and radio. As researchers began studying the effects of media, they used suggestion theory to explain how people could be influenced by emotionally-resonant persuasive messages. Harold Lasswell provided a broad definition of the term propaganda, writing it as: "the expression of opinions or actions carried out deliberately by individuals or groups with a view to influencing the opinions or actions of other individuals or groups for predetermined ends and through psychological manipulations."[8] Garth Jowett and Victoria O'Donnell theorize that propaganda and persuasion are linked as humans use communication as a form of soft power through the development and cultivation of propaganda materials.[9]


In a 1929 literary debate with Edward Bernays, Everett Dean Martin argues that, "Propaganda is making puppets of us. We are moved by hidden strings which the propagandist manipulates."[10] In the 1920s and 1930s, propaganda was sometimes described as all-powerful. For example, Bernays acknowledged in his book Propaganda that "The conscious and intelligent manipulation of the organized habits and opinions of the masses is an important element in democratic society. Those who manipulate this unseen mechanism of society constitute an invisible government which is the true ruling power of our country. We are governed, our minds are molded, our tastes formed, our ideas suggested, largely by men we have never heard of."[11]


NATO's 2011 guidance for military public affairs defines propaganda as "information, ideas, doctrines, or special appeals disseminated to influence the opinion, emotions, attitudes, or behaviour of any specified group in order to benefit the sponsor, either directly or indirectly".[12]

Altheide, David L. & John M. Johnson. Bureaucratic Propaganda. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1980.

. Propaganda. New York: H. Liveright, 1928. (See also version of text at website www.historyisaweapon.com: "Propaganda.")

Bernays, Edward

Borgies, Loïc. Le conflit propagandiste entre Octavien et Marc Antoine: De l'usage politique de la uituperatio entre 44 et 30 a. C. n.. Brussels: Latomus, 2016.

Brown, J.A.C. Techniques of Persuasion: From Propaganda to Brainwashing. Harmondsworth: Pelican, 1963.

& Herman Edward S. Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media. New York: Pantheon Books. (1988)

Chomsky, Noam

Chomsky, Noam. Media Control: The Spectacular Achievements of Propaganda. Seven Stories Press, 1997.

Cole, Robert. Propaganda in Twentieth Century War and Politics: An Annotated Bibliography. London: Scarecrow, 1996.

Cole, Robert, ed. Encyclopedia of Propaganda. 3 vols. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1998.

Combs James E. & Nimmo Dan, The New Propaganda: The Dictatorship of Palaver in Contemporary Politics. White Plains, N.Y. Longman. (1993)

Culbert, and Welch, eds. Propaganda and Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present (2003)

Cull, Nicholas John

Cunningham Stanley B. The Idea of Propaganda: A Reconstruction. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2002.

Cunningham Stanley B. "Reflections on the Interface Between Propaganda and Religion", in The Future of Religion, eds. P. Rennick, S. Cunningham, & R.H. Johnson. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Pub., 2010, pp. 83–96.

De Lange, William (2023). A History of Japanese Journalism: State of Affairs and Affairs of State. Toyo Press.  978-94-92722-393.

ISBN

DelHagen, Jacob M. Modern Propaganda : The art of influencing society, individuals, and the news media through digital communication. 2016  9780998315607

ISBN

Propagande et pressions en politique internationale, Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 1963, 537 pages.

Dimitri Kitsikis

Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes. (1965).

Ellul, Jacques

Hamilton, John M. (2020) Manipulating the Masses: Woodrow Wilson and the Birth of American Propaganda. Louisiana State University Press.

Hale, Oron James. Publicity and Diplomacy: With Special Reference to England and Germany, 1890–1914 (1940) Archived 4 December 2020 at the Wayback Machine

online

Hench, John B. Books as Weapons: Propaganda, Publishing, and the Battle for Global Markets in the Era of World War II. Cornell University Press, 2010.

Jowett, Garth S. & Victoria O'Donnell. Propaganda and Persuasion, 6th edn. California: Sage Publications, 2014. A detailed overview of the history, function, and analyses of propaganda.

Lasswell, Harold. Propaganda Technique in the World War. K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Limited, 1927.

Lohrey, Andrew, ed. Taking the Risk out of Democracy: Corporate Propaganda versus Freedom and Liberty. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1997.

. Propaganda & The Ethics of Persuasion. Orchard Park, New York: Broadview Press, 2002.

Marlin, Randal

McCombs, M. E. & D. L. Shaw. "The agenda-setting function of mass media", Public Opinion Quarterly 36, no. 2 (1972): 176–187.

Propaganda Boom (London: John Gifford, 1938)

Mackenzie, A. J.

Moran, T. "Propaganda as Pseudocommunication", Et Cetera 2 (1979): 181–197.

Nelson, Richard Alan. A Chronology and Glossary of Propaganda in the United States. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1996.

Oddo, J. (2018). The Discourse of Propaganda: Case Studies from the Persian Gulf War and the 'War on Terror'. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press.

Pratkanis, Anthony & Elliot Aronson. Age of Propaganda: The Everyday Use and Abuse of Persuasion. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1992.

Rutherford, Paul, Endless Propaganda: The Advertising of Public Goods. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. (2000)

Rutherford, Paul, Weapons of Mass Persuasion: Marketing the War Against Iraq. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004.

Shanahan, James, ed. Propaganda without Propagandists? Six Case Studies in U.S. Propaganda. Hampton Press, 2001.

Shaw Jeffrey M., Illusions of Freedom: Thomas Merton and Jacques Ellul on Technology and the Human Condition. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock.  978-1625640581 (2014)

ISBN

Snow, Nancy (10 March 2014). . Baton Rouge: LSU Press. ISBN 978-0-8071-5415-1.

Propaganda and American Democracy

(4 January 2011). Propaganda, Inc.: Selling America's Culture to the World. New York: Seven Stories Press. ISBN 978-1-60980-082-6.

Snow, Nancy

Sproule J. Michael, Channels of Propaganda. Bloomington, IN: EDINFO Press. (1994)

(2016). How Propaganda Works. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691173429.

Stanley, Jason

Stauber, John & Sheldon Rampton. Toxic Sludge Is Good for You! Lies, Damn Lies and the Public Relations Industry. Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press, 1995.