Katana VentraIP

Second Industrial Revolution

The Second Industrial Revolution, also known as the Technological Revolution,[1] was a phase of rapid scientific discovery, standardisation, mass production and industrialisation from the late 19th century into the early 20th century. The First Industrial Revolution, which ended in the middle of the 19th century, was punctuated by a slowdown in important inventions before the Second Industrial Revolution in 1870. Though a number of its events can be traced to earlier innovations in manufacturing, such as the establishment of a machine tool industry, the development of methods for manufacturing interchangeable parts, as well as the invention of the Bessemer process and open hearth furnace to produce steel, the Second Industrial Revolution is generally dated between 1870 and 1914 (the beginning of World War I).[2]

Second Industrial Revolution

Advancements in manufacturing and production technology enabled the widespread adoption of technological systems such as telegraph and railroad networks, gas and water supply, and sewage systems, which had earlier been limited to a few select cities. The enormous expansion of rail and telegraph lines after 1870 allowed unprecedented movement of people and ideas, which culminated in a new wave of globalization. In the same time period, new technological systems were introduced, most significantly electrical power and telephones. The Second Industrial Revolution continued into the 20th century with early factory electrification and the production line; it ended at the beginning of World War I.


The Second Industrial Revolution is followed by the Third Industrial Revolution starting in 1947.

Overview[edit]

The Second Industrial Revolution was a period of rapid industrial development, primarily in the United Kingdom, Germany, and the United States, but also in France, the Low Countries, Italy and Japan. It followed on from the First Industrial Revolution that began in Britain in the late 18th century that then spread throughout Western Europe. It came to an end with the start of the First World War. While the First Revolution was driven by limited use of steam engines, interchangeable parts and mass production, and was largely water-powered (especially in the United States), the Second was characterized by the build-out of railroads, large-scale iron and steel production, widespread use of machinery in manufacturing, greatly increased use of steam power, widespread use of the telegraph, use of petroleum and the beginning of electrification. It also was the period during which modern organizational methods for operating large-scale businesses over vast areas came into use.[3]


The concept was introduced by Patrick Geddes, Cities in Evolution (1910), and was being used by economists such as Erich Zimmermann (1951),[4] but David Landes' use of the term in a 1966 essay and in The Unbound Prometheus (1972) standardized scholarly definitions of the term, which was most intensely promoted by Alfred Chandler (1918–2007). However, some continue to express reservations about its use.[5]


Landes (2003) stresses the importance of new technologies, especially, the internal combustion engine, petroleum, new materials and substances, including alloys and chemicals, electricity and communication technologies (such as the telegraph, telephone and radio).


One author has called the period from 1867 to 1914 during which most of the great innovations were developed "The Age of Synergy" since the inventions and innovations were engineering and science-based.[6]

replacing rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based on a scientific study of the tasks

scientifically selecting, training, and developing each employee rather than passively leaving them to train themselves

providing "detailed instruction and supervision of each worker in the performance of that worker's discrete task"

dividing work nearly equally between managers and workers, such that the managers apply scientific-management principles to planning the work and the workers actually perform the tasks

Germany[edit]

The German Empire came to rival Britain as Europe's primary industrial nation during this period. Since Germany industrialized later, it was able to model its factories after those of Britain, thus making more efficient use of its capital and avoiding legacy methods in its leap to the envelope of technology. Germany invested more heavily than the British in research, especially in chemistry, motors and electricity. The German concern system (known as Konzerne), being significantly concentrated, was able to make more efficient use of capital. Germany was not weighted down with an expensive worldwide empire that needed defense. Following Germany's annexation of Alsace-Lorraine in 1871, it absorbed parts of what had been France's industrial base.[104]


By 1900 the German chemical industry dominated the world market for synthetic dyes. The three major firms BASF, Bayer and Hoechst produced several hundred different dyes, along with the five smaller firms. In 1913 these eight firms produced almost 90 percent of the world supply of dyestuffs, and sold about 80 percent of their production abroad. The three major firms had also integrated upstream into the production of essential raw materials and they began to expand into other areas of chemistry such as pharmaceuticals, photographic film, agricultural chemicals and electrochemical. Top-level decision-making was in the hands of professional salaried managers, leading Chandler to call the German dye companies "the world's first truly managerial industrial enterprises".[105] There were many spin offs from research—such as the pharmaceutical industry, which emerged from chemical research.[106]

Belgium[edit]

Belgium during the Belle Époque showed the value of the railways for speeding the Second Industrial Revolution. After 1830, when it broke away from the Netherlands and became a new nation, it decided to stimulate industry. It planned and funded a simple cruciform system that connected major cities, ports and mining areas, and linked to neighboring countries. Belgium thus became the railway center of the region. The system was soundly built along British lines, so that profits were low but the infrastructure necessary for rapid industrial growth was put in place.[107]

Atkeson, Andrew and Patrick J. Kehoe. "Modeling the Transition to a New Economy: Lessons from Two Technological Revolutions," American Economic Review, March 2007, Vol. 97 Issue 1, pp 64–88 in

EBSCO

Appleby, Joyce Oldham. The Relentless Revolution: A History of Capitalism (2010)

excerpt and text search

Beaudreau, Bernard C. The Economic Consequences of Mr. Keynes: How the Second Industrial Revolution Passed Great Britain (2006)

(1970) [1953]. Science and Industry in the Nineteenth Century. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-20128-4.

Bernal, J. D.

Broadberry, Stephen, and Kevin H. O'Rourke. The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Europe (2 vol. 2010), covers 1700 to present

Chandler, Jr., Alfred D. Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism (1990).

Chant, Colin, ed. Science, Technology and Everyday Life, 1870–1950 (1989) emphasis on Britain

(1999). Industry and Empire: From 1750 to the Present Day. rev. and updated with Chris Wrigley (2nd ed.). New York: New Press. ISBN 1-56584-561-7.

Hobsbawm, E. J.

Hull, James O. "From Rostow to Chandler to You: How revolutionary was the second industrial revolution?" Journal of European Economic History, Spring 1996, Vol. 25 Issue 1, pp. 191–208

Hunter, Louis C.; Bryant, Lynwood (1991). . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0262081986.

A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930, Vol. 3: The Transmission of Power

Kornblith, Gary. The Industrial Revolution in America (1997)

; Carroll W. Pursell Jr (1967). Technology in Western Civilization (2 vols. ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.

Kranzberg, Melvin

(2003). The Unbound Prometheus: Technical Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-53402-X.

Landes, David

Licht, Walter. Industrializing America: The Nineteenth Century (1995)

Mokyr, Joel (1998)

The Second Industrial Revolution, 1870–1914

Mokyr, Joel. The Enlightened Economy: An Economic History of Britain 1700–1850 (2010)

Rider, Christine, ed. Encyclopedia of the Age of the Industrial Revolution, 1700–1920 (2 vol. 2007)

Roberts, Wayne. "Toronto Metal Workers and the Second Industrial Revolution, 1889–1914," Labour / Le Travail, Autumn 1980, Vol. 6, pp 49–72

Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916). . New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. LCCN 16011753.. Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 (LCCN 27-24075); and by Lindsay Publications, Inc., Bradley, Illinois, (ISBN 978-0917914737).

English and American Tool Builders

Smil, Vaclav. Creating the Twentieth Century: Technical Innovations of 1867–1914 and Their Lasting Impact

White, Richard C. (2017). . Oxford University Press.

The Republic for Which It Stands

Media related to Industrial revolution at Wikimedia Commons