Smog
Smog, or smoke fog, is a type of intense air pollution. The word "smog" was coined in the early 20th century, and is a portmanteau of the words smoke and fog[1] to refer to smoky fog due to its opacity, and odor.[2] The word was then intended to refer to what was sometimes known as pea soup fog, a familiar and serious problem in London from the 19th century to the mid-20th century, where it was commonly known as a London particular or London fog. This kind of visible air pollution is composed of nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxide, ozone, smoke and other particulates. Man-made smog is derived from coal combustion emissions, vehicular emissions, industrial emissions, forest and agricultural fires and photochemical reactions of these emissions.
For other uses, see Smog (disambiguation).
Smog is often categorized as being either summer smog or winter smog. Summer smog is primarily associated with the photochemical formation of ozone. During the summer season when the temperatures are warmer and there is more sunlight present, photochemical smog is the dominant type of smog formation. During the winter months when the temperatures are colder, and atmospheric inversions are common, there is an increase in coal and other fossil fuel usage to heat homes and buildings. These combustion emissions, together with the lack of pollutant dispersion under inversions, characterize winter smog formation. Smog formation in general relies on both primary and secondary pollutants. Primary pollutants are emitted directly from a source, such as emissions of sulfur dioxide from coal combustion. Secondary pollutants, such as ozone, are formed when primary pollutants undergo chemical reactions in the atmosphere.
Photochemical smog, as found for example in Los Angeles, is a type of air pollution derived from vehicular emission from internal combustion engines and industrial fumes. These pollutants react in the atmosphere with sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog. In certain other cities, such as Delhi, smog severity is often aggravated by stubble burning in neighboring agricultural areas since the 1980s. The atmospheric pollution levels of Los Angeles, Beijing, Delhi, Lahore, Mexico City, Tehran and other cities are often increased by an inversion that traps pollution close to the ground. The developing smog is usually toxic to humans and can cause severe sickness, a shortened life span, or premature death.
Etymology[edit]
Coinage of the term "smog" has been attributed to Henry Antoine Des Voeux in his 1905 paper, "Fog and Smoke" for a meeting of the Public Health Congress. The 26 July 1905 edition of the London newspaper Daily Graphic quoted Des Voeux, "He said it required no science to see that there was something produced in great cities which was not found in the country, and that was smoky fog, or what was known as 'smog'."[3]: 1 The following day the newspaper stated that "Dr. Des Voeux did a public service in coining a new word for the London fog."
However, the term appeared twenty-five years earlier than Voeux's paper, in the Santa Cruz & Monterey Illustrated Handbook published in 1880[4] and also appears in print in a column quoting from the book in the 3 July 1880, Santa Cruz Weekly Sentinel.[5] On 17 December 1881, in the publication Sporting Times, the author claims to have invented the word: "The 'Smog' – a word I have invented, combined of smoke and fog, to designate the London atmosphere..."[6]
Anthropogenic causes[edit]
Coal[edit]
Coal fire can emit significant clouds of smoke that contribute to the formation of winter smog. Coal fires can be used to heat individual buildings or to provide energy in a power-producing plant. Air pollution from this source has been reported in England since the Middle Ages.[7][8] London, in particular, was notorious up through the mid-20th century for its coal-caused smogs, which were nicknamed "pea-soupers". Air pollution of this type is still a problem in areas that generate significant smoke from burning coal. The emissions from coal combustion are one of the main causes of air pollution in China.[9] Especially during autumn and winter when coal-fired heating ramps up, the amount of produced smoke at times forces some Chinese cities to close down roads, schools or airports. One prominent example for this was China's Northeastern city of Harbin in 2013.
Transportation emissions[edit]
Traffic emissions – such as from trucks, buses, and automobiles – also contribute to the formation of smog.[10] Airborne by-products from vehicle exhaust systems and air conditioning cause air pollution and are a major ingredient in the creation of smog in some large cities.[11][12][13][14]
The major culprits from transportation sources are carbon monoxide (CO),[15][16] nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2),[17][18][19] volatile organic compounds,[16][17] and hydrocarbons (hydrocarbons are the main component of petroleum fuels such as gasoline and diesel fuel).[16] Transportation emissions also include sulfur dioxides and particulate matter but in much smaller quantities than the pollutants mentioned previously. The nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds can undergo a series of chemical reactions with sunlight, heat, ammonia, moisture, and other compounds to form the noxious vapors, ground level ozone, and particles that comprise smog.[16][17]
Other negative effects[edit]
Although severe health effects caused by smog are the chief issue, intense air pollution caused by haze from air pollution, dust storm particles, and bush fire smoke, cause a reduction in irradiance that hurts both solar photovoltaic[46] production as well as agricultural yield.[47]