Social democracy
Social democracy is a political, social, and economic philosophy within socialism[1] that supports political and economic democracy and supports a gradualist, reformist and democratic approach towards achieving socialism. In practice, social democracy takes a form of socially managed welfare capitalism, achieved with partial public ownership, economic interventionism, and policies promoting social equality.[2]
This article is about the politicale within the socialist movement. For socialism emphasizing democracy sometimes described as social democracy, see Democratic socialism. For the policy regime in Northern Europe sometimes described as social democracy, see Nordic model. For the social welfare model in Western Europe, see Social market economy.
Social democracy maintains a commitment to representative and participatory democracy. Common aims include curbing inequality, eliminating the oppression of underprivileged groups, eradicating poverty, and upholding universally accessible public services such as child care, education, elderly care, health care, and workers' compensation.[3][4] Economically, it supports income redistribution and regulating the economy in the public interest.[5]
Social democracy has a strong, long-standing connection with trade unions and the broader labour movement. It is supportive of measures to foster greater democratic decision-making in the economic sphere, including co-determination, collective bargaining rights for workers, and expanding ownership to employees and other stakeholders.[6]
The history of social democracy stretches back to the 19th-century labour movement. Originally a catch-all term for socialists of varying tendencies, after the Russian Revolution, it came to refer to reformist socialists that are opposed to the authoritarian and centralized Soviet model of socialism.[7] In the post-war era, social democrats embraced mixed economies with a predominance of private property and promoted the regulation of capitalism over its replacement with a qualitatively different socialist economic system.[8] Since then, social democracy has been associated with Keynesian economics, the Nordic model, and welfare states.[9]
Social democracy has been described as the most common form of Western or modern socialism.[10][11] Amongst social democrats, attitudes towards socialism vary: some retain socialism as a long-term goal[12] while others view it as an ethical ideal to guide reforms within capitalism. One way social democracy can be distinguished from democratic socialism is social democracy aims to strike a balance by advocating for a mixed market economy where capitalism is regulated to address inequalities through social welfare programs. It supports private ownership with a strong emphasis on a well-regulated market, on the other hand, democratic socialism places greater emphasis on abolishing private property ownership.[13] Nevertheless, the distinction remains blurred[14] and the term is commonly used synonymously.
The Third Way is an off-shoot of social democracy which aims to fuse economically liberal with social democratic economic policies and center-left social policies. It is a reconceptualization of social democracy developed in the 1990s and embraced by some social democratic parties; some analysts have characterized the Third Way as part of the neoliberal movement.[15]
Definitions[edit]
As a tradition of socialism[edit]
Social democracy is defined as one of many socialist traditions.[16] As an international political movement and ideology, it aims to achieve socialism through gradual and democratic means.[17] This definition goes back to the influence of both the reformist socialism of Ferdinand Lassalle and the internationalist revolutionary socialism advanced by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.[18] Social democracy has undergone various major forms throughout its history.[19] In the 19th century, it encompassed various non-revolutionary and revolutionary currents of socialism, excluding anarchism.[20] In one of the first scholarly works on European socialism written for an American audience, Richard T. Ely's 1883 book French and German Socialism in Modern Times, social democrats were characterized as "the extreme wing of the socialists" who were "inclined to lay so much stress on equality of enjoyment, regardless of the value of one's labor, that they might, perhaps, more properly be called communists".[21] In the early 20th century, social democracy came to refer to support for a process of developing society through existing political structures and opposition to revolutionary means, which are often associated with Marxism.[22] Thus whereas in the 19th century, social democracy could be described as "organized Marxism", it became "organized reformism" by the 20th century.[23]
In political science, democratic socialism and social democracy are sometimes seen as synonyms,[24] while they are distinguished in journalistic use.[25] Under this democratic socialist definition,[nb 1] social democracy is an ideology seeking to gradually build an alternative socialist economy through the institutions of liberal democracy.[22] Starting in the post-war period, social democracy was defined as a policy regime advocating the reformation of capitalism to align it with the ethical ideals of social justice.[29]
What socialists such as anarchists, communists, social democrats, syndicalists, and some social democratic proponents of the Third Way share in common is history, specifically that they can all be traced back to the individuals, groups, and literature of the First International, and have retained some of the terminology and symbolism such as the colour red. How far society should intervene and whether the government, mainly the existing government, is the right vehicle for change are issues of disagreement.[30] As the Historical Dictionary of Socialism summarizes, "there were general criticisms about the social effects of the private ownership and control of capital", "a general view that the solution to these problems lay in some form of collective control (with the degree of control varying among the proponents of socialism) over the means of production, distribution, and exchange", and "there was agreement that the outcomes of this collective control should be a society that provided social equality and justice, economic protection, and generally a more satisfying life for most people".[30] Socialism became a catch-all term for the critics of capitalism and industrial society.[31] Social democrats are anticapitalists insofar as criticism about "poverty, low wages, unemployment, economic and social inequality, and a lack of economic security" is linked to the private ownership of the means of production.[30]
Social democracy or social democratic remains controversial among socialists.[32][nb 2] Some define it as representing a Marxist faction and non-communist socialists or the right-wing of socialism during the split with communism.[28] Others have noted its pejorative use among communists and other socialists. According to Lyman Tower Sargent, "socialism refers to social theories rather than to theories oriented to the individual. Because many communists now call themselves democratic socialists, it is sometimes difficult to know what a political label really means. As a result, social democratic has become a common new label for democratic socialist political parties."[33]
As a policy regime[edit]
As a policy regime,[34] social democracy entails support for a mixed economy and ameliorative measures to benefit the working class within the framework of democratic capitalism.[35] Social democracy currently depicts a chiefly capitalist economy with state economic regulation in the general interest, state provision of welfare services and state redistribution of income and wealth. Social democratic concepts influence the policies of most Western states since World War 2.[36] Social democracy is frequently considered a practical middle course between capitalism and socialism. Social democracy aims to use democratic collective action for promoting freedom and equality in the economy and opposes what is seen as inequality and oppression that laissez-faire capitalism causes.[37]
In the 21st century, it has become commonplace to define social democracy in reference to Northern and Western European countries,[38] and their model of a welfare state with a corporatist system of collective bargaining.[39] Social democracy has also been used synonymously with the Nordic model.[40] Henning Meyer and Jonathan Rutherford associate social democracy with the socioeconomic order in Europe from the post-war period until the early 1990s.[41] Social democratic roots are also observed in Latin America during the early 20th century; this was the case in Uruguay during the two presidential terms of José Batlle y Ordóñez.[42]
While the welfare state has been accepted across the political spectrum,[26] particularly by conservatives (Christian democrats) and liberals (social liberals),[43] one notable difference is that socialists see the welfare state "not merely to provide benefits but to build the foundation for emancipation and self-determination".[44] In the 21st century, a social democratic policy regime[nb 3] may further be distinguished by a support for an increase in welfare policies or an increase in public services.[40]
Some distinguish between ideological social democracy as part of the broad socialist movement and social democracy as a policy regime. They call the first classical social democracy or classical socialism,[45] and the latter as competitive socialism,[46] liberal socialism,[47] neo-social democracy,[48] or new social democracy.[49]
As a name for political parties[edit]
Many socialist parties in several countries have been, or are called Social Democratic. In the 19th century, social democrat was a broad catch-all for international socialists owing their primary ideological allegiance to Lassalle or Marx, in contrast to those advocating various forms of utopian socialism. Many parties in this era described themselves as Social Democrats, including the General German Workers' Association and the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany, which merged to form the Social Democratic Party of Germany, the Social Democratic Federation in Britain, and the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. Social Democrat continued to be used in this context until the Bolshevik Revolution of October 1917, when Communist came into vogue for individuals and organizations espousing a revolutionary road to socialism.[50][nb 4]
In the 20th century, the term came to be associated with the positions of the German and Swedish parties. The first advocated revisionist Marxism, while the second advocated a comprehensive welfare state. By the 21st century, parties advocating social democracy include Labour, Left,[52] and some Green parties.[53][nb 5] Most social democratic parties consider themselves democratic socialists and are categorized as socialists.[54] They continue to reference socialism,[55] either as a post-capitalist order[56] or, in more ethical terms, as a just society, described as representing democratic socialism,[57] without any explicit reference to the economic system or its structure.[58] Parties such as the Social Democratic Party of Germany and the Swedish Social Democratic Party[nb 6] describe their goal as developing democratic socialism,[60] with social democracy as the principle of action.[61] In the 21st century, European social democratic parties represent the centre-left and most are part of the Party of European Socialists, while democratic socialist parties are to their left within the Party of the European Left. Many of those social democratic parties are members of the Socialist International, including several democratic socialist parties, whose Frankfurt Declaration declares the goal of developing democratic socialism.[32] Others are also part of the Progressive Alliance, founded in 2013 by most contemporary or former member parties of the Socialist International.[62]
As Marxist revisionism[edit]
Social democracy has been seen as a revision of orthodox Marxism,[63] although this has been described as misleading for modern social democracy.[64] Marxist revisionist Eduard Bernstein's views influenced and laid the groundwork for developing post-war social democracy as a policy regime, Labour revisionism, and the neo-revisionism[65] of the Third Way.[66] This definition of social democracy is focused on ethical terms, with the type of socialism advocated being ethical and liberal.[67] Bernstein described socialism and social democracy in particular as organized liberalism;[68] in this sense, liberalism is the predecessor and precursor of socialism,[69] whose restricted view of freedom is to be socialized, while democracy must entail social democracy.[70] For those social democrats, who still describe and see themselves as socialists, socialism is used in ethical or moral terms,[71] representing democracy, egalitarianism, and social justice rather than a specifically socialist economic system.[29] Under this type of definition, social democracy's goal is that of advancing those values within a capitalist market economy, as its support for a mixed economy no longer denotes the coexistence between private and public ownership or that between planning and market mechanisms but rather, it represents free markets combined with government intervention and regulations.[72]