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War on terror

The war on terror, officially the Global War on Terrorism (GWOT),[3] is a global military campaign initiated by the United States following the September 11 attacks and is the most recent global conflict spanning multiple wars. Some researchers and political scientists have argued that it replaced the Cold War.[4][5]

This article is about the international military campaign. For other uses, see War on terror (disambiguation).

The main targets of the counterterrorist campaign are militant Islamist movements like Al-Qaeda, Taliban and their allies. Other major targets included the Ba'athist regime in Iraq, which was deposed in an invasion in 2003, and various militant factions that fought during the ensuing insurgency. After its territorial expansion in 2014, the Islamic State militia has also emerged as a key adversary of the United States. As for Al-Qaeda in its current status, former Secretary of State Mike Pompeo issued an official statement on January 12, 2021, stating: “Al-Qaeda has a new base of operations: it is the Islamic Republic of Iran.”[6] Al-Qaeda’s de facto leader, Saif al-Adel, is currently believed to be living in Iran.[7] Between late 2023 and 2024, following the spillover of the Israel-Hamas war and the eventual Red Sea crisis, the Houthis have been re-designated as Specially Designated Global Terrorists,[8] eventually emerging as a new adversary for the U.S. The Houthi aggression is alleged to mark the most serious threat to shipping and trade in decades.[9][10][11]


The "war on terror" uses war as a metaphor to describe a variety of actions which fall outside the traditional definition of war. U.S. president George W. Bush first used the term "war on terrorism" on 16 September 2001,[12][13] and then "war on terror" a few days later in a formal speech to Congress.[14][15] Bush indicated the enemy of the war on terror as "a radical network of terrorists and every government that supports them."[15][16] The initial conflict was aimed at al-Qaeda, with the main theater in Afghanistan and Pakistan, a region that would later be referred to as "AfPak."[17] The term "war on terror" was immediately criticized by individuals including Richard Myers, then chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and eventually more nuanced terms came to be used by the Bush administration to define the campaign.[18] While "war on terror" was never used as a formal designation of U.S. operations,[19] a Global War on Terrorism Service Medal was and is issued by the U.S. Armed Forces. However, the American military ceased issuing its National Defense Service Medal on 31 December 2022.


As of 2023, various global operations in the campaign are ongoing, including a U.S. military intervention in Somalia.[20][21] Although the major wars in Afghanistan and Iraq have ended, Israel's October 7 attack, the ongoing Israel-Hamas war, the ongoing Red Sea crisis and Iran's growing status as a state sponsor of terrorism have led to renewed questions about a new phase of the war on terror.[22][23] Some have commented that these wars have reignited the rhetoric of the war on terror in a way not seen since the 2000s.[24]


According to the Costs of War Project, the post-9/11 wars of the campaign have displaced 38 million people, the second largest number of forced displacements of any conflict since 1900,[25] and caused more than 4.5 million deaths (direct and indirect) in Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, Philippines, Pakistan, Somalia, Syria and Yemen. They also estimate that it has cost the US Treasury over $8 trillion.[26][27][28][2]


While support for the "war on terror" was high among the American public during its initial years, it had become heavily unpopular by the late 2000s.[29][30] Controversy over the war has focused on its morality, casualties, and continuity, with critics questioning government measures that infringed civil liberties and human rights.[31] Controversial practices of coalition forces have been condemned, including drone warfare, surveillance, torture, extraordinary rendition and various war crimes.[32][33][34] The participating governments have been criticized for implementing authoritarian measures, repressing minorities,[35][36] fomenting Islamophobia globally,[37] and causing negative impacts to health and environment.[38][39][40] Security analysts assert that there is no military solution to the conflict, pointing out that terrorism is not an identifiable enemy, and have emphasized the importance of negotiations and political solutions to resolve the underlying roots of the crises.[41]

World War IV

[42]

[43]

World War III

Bush's War on Terror

[44]

The Long War[46]

[45]

The Forever War

[47]

The Global War on Terror

[48]

The War Against al-Qaeda

[49]

The War of Terror

[50]

The

2001 shoe bomb plot

A plan to crash airplanes into the (aka Library Tower) in Los Angeles

U.S. Bank Tower

The 2003 plot by to blow up the Brooklyn Bridge in New York City

Iyman Faris

The , which targeted the International Monetary Fund and World Bank buildings in Washington, D.C., the New York Stock Exchange and other financial institutions

2004 Financial buildings plot

The 2004

Columbus Shopping Mall Bombing Plot

The

2006 Sears Tower plot

The

2007 Fort Dix attack plot

The

2007 John F. Kennedy International Airport attack plot

The and 2010 Times Square car bombing attempt

New York Subway Bombing Plot

In addition to military efforts abroad, in the aftermath of 9/11, the Bush Administration increased domestic efforts to prevent future attacks. Various government bureaucracies that handled security and military functions were reorganized. A new cabinet-level agency called the United States Department of Homeland Security was created in November 2002 to lead and coordinate the largest reorganization of the U.S. federal government since the consolidation of the armed forces into the Department of Defense.


The Justice Department launched the National Security Entry-Exit Registration System for certain male non-citizens in the U.S., requiring them to register in person at offices of the Immigration and Naturalization Service.


The USA PATRIOT Act of October 2001 dramatically reduces restrictions on law enforcement agencies' ability to search telephone, e-mail communications, medical, financial, and other records; eases restrictions on foreign intelligence gathering within the United States; expands the Secretary of the Treasury's authority to regulate financial transactions, particularly those involving foreign individuals and entities; and broadens the discretion of law enforcement and immigration authorities in detaining and deporting immigrants suspected of terrorism-related acts. The act also expanded the definition of terrorism to include domestic terrorism, thus enlarging the number of activities to which the USA PATRIOT Act's expanded law enforcement powers could be applied. A new Terrorist Finance Tracking Program monitored the movements of terrorists' financial resources (discontinued after being revealed by The New York Times). Global telecommunication usage, including those with no links to terrorism,[223] is being collected and monitored through the NSA electronic surveillance program. The Patriot Act is still in effect.


Political interest groups have stated that these laws remove important restrictions on governmental authority, and are a dangerous encroachment on civil liberties, possible unconstitutional violations of the Fourth Amendment. On 30 July 2003, the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) filed the first legal challenge against Section 215 of the Patriot Act, claiming that it allows the FBI to violate a citizen's First Amendment rights, Fourth Amendment rights, and right to due process, by granting the government the right to search a person's business, bookstore, and library records in a terrorist investigation, without disclosing to the individual that records were being searched.[224] Also, governing bodies in many communities have passed symbolic resolutions against the act.


In a speech on 9 June 2005, Bush said that the USA PATRIOT Act had been used to bring charges against more than 400 suspects, more than half of whom had been convicted. Meanwhile, the ACLU quoted Justice Department figures showing that 7,000 people have complained of abuse of the Act.


The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) began an initiative in early 2002 with the creation of the Total Information Awareness program, designed to promote information technologies that could be used in counter-terrorism. This program, facing criticism, has since been defunded by Congress.


By 2003, 12 major conventions and protocols were designed to combat terrorism. These were adopted and ratified by many states. These conventions require states to co-operate on principal issues regarding unlawful seizure of aircraft, the physical protection of nuclear materials, and the freezing of assets of militant networks.[225]


In 2005, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 1624 concerning incitement to commit acts of terrorism and the obligations of countries to comply with international human rights laws.[226] Although both resolutions require mandatory annual reports on counter-terrorism activities by adopting nations, the United States and Israel have both declined to submit reports. In the same year, the United States Department of Defense and the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff issued a planning document, by the name "National Military Strategic Plan for the War on Terrorism", which stated that it constituted the "comprehensive military plan to prosecute the Global War on Terror for the Armed Forces of the United States...including the findings and recommendations of the 9/11 Commission and a rigorous examination with the Department of Defense".


On 9 January 2007, the House of Representatives passed a bill, by a vote of 299–128, enacting many of the recommendations of the 9/11 Commission The bill passed in the U.S. Senate,[227] by a vote of 60–38, on 13 March 2007 and it was signed into law on 3 August 2007 by President Bush. It became Public Law 110–53. In July 2012, U.S. Senate passed a resolution urging that the Haqqani Network be designated a foreign terrorist organization.[228]


The Office of Strategic Influence was secretly created after 9/11 for the purpose of coordinating propaganda efforts but was closed soon after being discovered. The Bush administration implemented the Continuity of Operations Plan (or Continuity of Government) to ensure that U.S. government would be able to continue in catastrophic circumstances.


Since 9/11, extremists made various attempts to attack the United States, with varying levels of organization and skill. For example, vigilant passengers aboard a transatlantic flight prevented Richard Reid, in 2001, and Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab, in 2009, from detonating an explosive device.


Other terrorist plots have been stopped by federal agencies using new legal powers and investigative tools, sometimes in cooperation with foreign governments.


Such thwarted attacks include:


The Obama administration promised the closing of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp, increased the number of troops in Afghanistan, and promised the withdrawal of its forces from Iraq.

The in Indonesia were committed by various members of Jemaah Islamiyah, an organization linked to Al-Qaeda.

2002 Bali bombings

claimed responsibility for the 11 April 2007 Algiers bombings, which targeted the office of Algerian Prime Minister and a police station.

Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb

Morocco blamed Al-Qaeda for the which targeted French nationals. However, al-Qaeda denies involvement in the attack.

2011 Marrakech bombing

To date, no one has claimed responsibility for the 2012 in Libya, and Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb, pro-al-Qaeda militias and individuals "sympathetic to al-Qaeda" are considered to be the orchestrators of the attack. The attacks were launched 18 hours after al-Qaeda Emir Ayman al-Zawahiri released a video urging Muslims to attack on American targets in Libya in order to avenge the killing of al-Qaeda leader Abu Yahya al-Libi. The release of the video as well as the launching of the attacks coincided with the 11th anniversary of 9/11 attacks.

U.S. Consulate attack in Benghazi

The gunmen in the in Paris identified themselves as belonging to al-Qaeda's Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula.

Charlie Hebdo shooting

claimed responsibility for the Naval Air Station Pensacola shooting in the United States.

Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula

Coughlin, Stephen (2015). Catastrophic Failure: Blindfolding America in the Face of Jihad. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.  978-1511617505.

ISBN

Davis, John, ed. Terrorism in Africa: the evolving front in the war on terror (Lexington Books, 2012).

De Goede, Marieke. "The politics of preemption and the war on terror in Europe." European journal of international relations 14.1 (2008): 161–185.

online

Dimaggio, Anthony. Mass Media, Mass Propaganda: Understanding the News in the 'War on Terror'. (Lexington Books, 2008).

Hill, Joshua, Willard M. Oliver, and Nancy E. Marion. " 'Shaping history' or 'Riding the wave'?: President Bush's influence on the public opinion of terrorism, homeland security, & crime." Journal of Criminal Justice 38.5 (2010): 896–902.

Jackson, Richard. Writing the War on Terrorism: Language, Politics and Counter-Terrorism. (Manchester University Press, 2005).  0719071216.

ISBN

Jones, David Martin, and M.L.R. Smith. "The age of ambiguity: Art and the war on terror twenty years after 9/11." Studies in Conflict & Terrorism (2021): 1–20.

online

Lansford, Tom. 9/11 and the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. A Chronology and Reference Guide (ABC-CLIO, 2012).

excerpt

Lansford, Tom, Robert P. Watson, and Jack Covarrubias, eds. America's war on terror (2nd ed. Ashgate, 2009).

excerpt

Ryan, Maria. "‘War in countries we are not at war with’: The ‘war on terror’ on the periphery from Bush to Obama." International Politics 48.2 (2011): 364–389.

Webel, Charles, and Mark Tomass, eds. Assessing the War on Terror: Western and Middle Eastern Perspectives (Taylor & Francis, 2017).

White House information about the War on Terrorism

Archived 8 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine

CIA and the War on Terrorism

2006

U.S. National Military Strategic Plan for the War on Terrorism

The Oriental Institute, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague

The 9/11 Legacies Project

Responsible Statecraft, The Quincy Institute

9/11 At 20: A Week of Reflection