Occupation of Iraq (2003–2011)
The Occupation of Iraq (2003–2011) was characterized by a large United States military deployment on Iraqi territory, beginning with the US-led invasion of the country in March 2003 which overthrew the Ba'ath Party government of Saddam Hussein and ending with the departure of US troops from the country in 2011. Troops for the occupation came primarily from the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia, but 29 other nations also provided troops, and there were varying levels of assistance from Japan and other countries, as well as tens of thousands of private military company personnel.
It was a period of violence and political turmoil, and saw strong foreign influence exerted on Iraqi politics. In April 2003, a military occupation was established and run by the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA), which later appointed and granted limited powers to the Iraq Interim Governing Council. In June 2004, the Iraqi Interim Government, a caretaker government, was established, ending the international armed conflict between the U.S.-led Coalition and Iraq. Following parliamentary elections in January 2005, this administration was replaced in May by the Iraqi Transitional Government. A year later, the Al Maliki I Government took office.
Efforts toward the reconstruction of Iraq after the damage of the invasion were slowed when coalition and allied Iraqi forces fought a stronger-than-expected militant Iraqi insurgency, leading to difficult living conditions for the population of Iraq throughout the period.
Legal status of the coalition presence[edit]
An international armed conflict (IAC) between the United States and Iraq in the Iraq War began when the US-led Coalition invaded Iraq on March 19, 2003. IAC continued after the invasion when the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) was established on April 21 to temporarily administer the domestic affairs of Iraq. Therefore, hostilities during the invasion and occupation of Iraq fell under the laws of war applicable to IAC, including the 1949 Geneva Conventions, to which the US and Iraq are parties to, and the 1907 Hague Convention IV - The Laws and Customs of War on Land, which is commonly accepted as customary international humanitarian law binding on non-signatories engaged in an IAC.[2] According to Article 42 under Section III of the Hague Convention IV - The Laws and Customs of War on Land, "[t]erritory is considered occupied when it is actually placed under the authority of the hostile army."[3]
There may be situations where the former occupier will maintain a military presence in the country, with the agreement of the legitimate government under a security arrangement (e.g., US military presence in Japan and Germany). The legality of such agreement and the legitimacy of the national authorities signing it are subject to international recognition, whereby members of the international community re-establish diplomatic and political relations with the national government.
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1546 in 2004 looked forward to the end of the occupation and the assumption of full responsibility and authority by a fully sovereign and independent Interim Government of Iraq.[4] Afterwards, the UN and individual nations established diplomatic relations with the Interim Government, which began planning for elections and the writing of a new constitution. As a result, the Iraq War after June 28, 2004 became a non-international armed conflict (NIAC), since US-led Coalition troops were operating in the country with the consent of the new legitimate government of Iraq. Therefore, hostilities in post-occupation Iraq fell under the laws of war applicable to NIAC, including Common Article 3 of the 1949 Geneva Conventions.
In January 2005, John Negroponte, US ambassador to Iraq, indicated the US government would comply with a United Nations resolution declaring that coalition forces would have to leave if requested by the Iraqi government. "If that's the wish of the government of Iraq, we will comply with those wishes. But no, we haven't been approached on this issue – although obviously we stand prepared to engage the future government on any issue concerning our presence here."[5]
On 10 May 2007, 144 Iraqi Parliamentary lawmakers signed onto a legislative petition calling on the United States to set a timetable for withdrawal.[6] On 3 June 2007, the Iraqi Parliament voted 85 to 59 to require the Iraqi government to consult with Parliament before requesting additional extensions of the UN Security Council Mandate for Coalition operations in Iraq.[7] The UN mandate under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1790 expired on 31 December 2008.
American withdrawal[edit]
On 18 August 2010 the 4th Stryker Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division, the last US combat brigade withdrew from Iraq, ending the US combat mission in Iraq. 52,600 US military personnel remained in Iraq to take on an advisory role.[116]
On 19 August 2010, US President Barack Obama announced that all US combat operations would end on 31 August. 50,000 troops would stay in an advise-and-assist role. The full withdrawal was in December 2011. Between 15 and 18 December, the last troops left.
US military patrolling[edit]
During the "post-war" Iraq occupation, occupying forces have turned their attention to enforcing order through patrolling. These patrols faced insurgents who conduct ambushes using assault rifles, rocket propelled grenades, and carefully placed and timed explosives. The patrols require armored vehicles capable of stopping at least small arms fire of 7.62 mm machine gun rounds along with mandatory external weapons platforms and tracking equipment. Experience is also key in detecting any potentially threatening, out of place car, box or person while following the rules of engagement that dictate a passive-but-ready posture. Patrolling soldiers spend nearly eight hours a day in sector and accrue nearly 30 patrols per month.
US permanent facilities[edit]
In October 2004, Iraq's interim government transferred to US ownership 104 acres (0.42 km2) of land beside the Tigris River in Baghdad for construction of a new US embassy. The new facility will be the largest of its kind in the world, the size of Vatican City, with the population of a small town, its own defense force, self-contained power and water. A few details of the embassy complex are available from a US Senate Foreign Relations Committee report, though many of the details remain secret. Its construction is budgeted at $592 million.[117]
Besides the embassy complex, four "super bases" are being built for permanent deployment. One would be adjacent to Baghdad, two would be close to the southern and northern oil fields and the fourth would be in the west towards Syria.[118]
The US is in the process of building 14 bases known as enduring bases. Four are unknown as to name and location. The other ten are: Green Zone in Baghdad, Camp Anaconda at Balad Airbase, Camp Taji in Taji, Camp Falcon-Al-Sarq in Baghdad, Post Freedom in Mosul, Camp Victory-Al Nasr at Baghdad Airfield, Camp Marez at Mosul Airfield, Camp Renegade in Kirkuk, Camp Speicher in Tikrit and Camp Fallujuh.[119][120]
Cultural dimensions[edit]
As cultural scientist Roland Benedikter poses in his book on Sustainable Democratization of Iraq[121] and in a series of essays,[122] one main cause of the ongoing problems of pacification seems to consist in the fact that the socio-cultural dimensions of sustainability, including questions of ethnicity, religion and minority issues, have not been included appropriately in the overall democratization strategies so far.
Post World War II occupations: