Comrade
In political contexts, comrade means a fellow party member, commonly left-wing. The political use was inspired by the French Revolution, after which it grew into a form of address between socialists and workers. Since the Russian Revolution, popular culture in the West has often associated it with communism. As such, it can be used as a derogatory reference to left-wingers, akin to "commie". In particular, the Russian word tovarishch may be used as derogatory reference to Communists.
For other uses, see Comrade (disambiguation).Etymology[edit]
The term comrade generally means 'mate', 'colleague', or 'ally', and derives from the Spanish and Portuguese, term camarada,[1] literally meaning 'chamber mate', from Latin camera, meaning 'chamber' or 'room'.[2] It may also specifically mean "fellow soldier", comrade in arms.
Background[edit]
Upon abolishing the titles of nobility in France, and the terms monsieur and madame (literally, 'my lord' and 'my lady'), the revolutionaries employed the term citoyen for men and citoyenne for women (both meaning 'citizen') to refer to each other.[3] The deposed King Louis XVI, for instance, was referred to as Citoyen Louis Capet to emphasize his loss of privilege.[4]
When the socialist movement gained momentum in the mid-19th century, socialists elsewhere began to look for a similar egalitarian alternative to terms like "Mister", "Miss", or "Missus". In German, the word Kamerad had long been used as an affectionate form of address among people linked by some strong common interest, such as a sport, a college, a profession (notably as a soldier), or simply friendship.[5] The term was often used with political overtones in the revolutions of 1848, and was subsequently borrowed by French and English. In English, the first known use of the word comrade with this meaning was in 1884 in the socialist magazine Justice.[6]
Political usage[edit]
Russo-Soviet usage[edit]
In the late 19th century Russian Marxists and other leftist revolutionaries adopted as a translation of the word Kamerad the Russian word for tovarisch (Russian: товарищ) (from Old Turkic tavar ishchi; abbreviated tov.), whose original meaning was "business companion" or "travel (or other adventure) mate", deriving from the noun товар (tovar, 'merchandise')[7][8] as a form of address in international (especially German) social democracy and in the associated parts of the labour movement. For instance, one might be referred to as Tovarisch Plekhanov or Tovarisch Chairman, or simply as Tovarisch. After the Russian Revolution, translations of the term in different languages were adopted by communists worldwide. However, due to its common usage in portrayals of the Soviet Union in Cold War films and books, the term became most strongly associated in public consciousness with communism as known in the Soviet Union, even though many other socialists would continue to use comrade among themselves.
In the early years of Soviet power, the Bolsheviks used Tovarisch when addressing or referring to people assumed sympathetic to the revolution and to the Soviet state, such as members of the Communist party (and originally of other pro-revolution leftist formations such as the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries) and people from the "working masses". The more neutral republican form of address would translate as Citizen. Accordingly, supporters of the White movement in the Russian Civil War would use Tovarisch mockingly as a derogatory term for their enemies – although at the same time, the various socialist anti-Bolshevik forces such as the Socialist Revolutionary Party and the Mensheviks also used Tovarisch among themselves.
In , the word shok (meaning friend, from Latin socius) was used within communist circles. The female form is shoqe.
Albanian
In Ethiopia the Amharic word for "comrade" is "Guade" written with ancient Geez script as "ጓድ". The word "Guade" trace its origin to the Amharic word of "Guadegna/ ጓደኛ" meaning " a friend". The word was in popular use after the 1974 revolution particularly by members of the socialist party to refer to another person of the similar political group, belongs to the same ideology, or similar style. The usage of the word is eroded since 1991 and it is limited to political party conventions or meetings. A rather the most popular variation of the word in the past and currently is "Guadochae/ ጓዶቼ" meaning "my friends" which is a humble way of address for a valued colleague or friend.
The word رفيق (Rafiq) (meaning comrade, companion) is used in Arabic, Urdu and Persian with the same political connotation as "comrade." The term is used both among Arab communists as well as within the Ba'ath movement and the Lebanese Forces. The term predates modern political usage, and is an Arabic male proper name. Iranian communists use the same term. In Pakistan, the term is sometimes used to refer to Islamist members of Jamaat-e-Islami and Islami Jamiat-e-Talaba (the student wing of Jamaat-e-Islami).
Arabic
The word for comrade is ընկեր (unger) for boys and men and ընկերուհի (ungerouhi) for girls and women. This word literally translates as 'friend'. It is used by members of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation, Ramgavar and Social Democrat Hunchakian Party when addressing other members of the party. The term is also used by the Armenian Communist Party.
Armenian
The word for comrade is Yoldaş (literally "co-traveller").
Azerbaijani
The word for comrade is таварыш (tavaryš), with the same origin as the Russian word. It is usually used only with a political or historical meaning in connection with the Communists.
Belarusian
The word কমরেড (Komred) is used by all leftist groups especially by the Communist Party of Bangladesh (বাংলাদেশের কমিউনিস্ট পার্টি-সিপিবি), Communist Party of India, Communist Party of India (Marxist) and other Communist Parties in India (especially in the States of West Bengal and Tripura) and Socialist Party of Bangladesh-SPB, Jatiyo Samajtantrik Dal-JSD (Bangladesh) etc.
Bengali
The word for comrade is другар (drugar), female другарка (drugarka). It translates as friend or colleague. In Communist times, it was the general form of address, also used in reference to schoolteachers etc.
Bulgarian
In , the word for comrade is company for males, companya for females. It is still in widespread use among communist and anarchist organisations, but it also occurs often in everyday speech to refer to neutral relationships such as classmates or flatmates with no political connotation.
Catalan
In , the word 同志 (pinyin: Tóngzhì) is used. The meaning of the word refers to a like-minded person. It is, through usage, associated with Communism, however, it may be used as a friendly epithet between friends or colleagues, mostly of the older generation. It is still currently used in Chinese state media to address top party and state leaders such as Xi Jinping as well as within the People’s Liberation Army to address soldiers and officers. In current usage, it is also used by LGBT people in China to refer to one another.[24]
Chinese
The word for comrade is soudruh (m.) and soudružka (f.). In 19th century Czech, it was a poetic word, meaning 'fellow'. As elsewhere in Europe, the term was originally introduced by the Czech Social Democrats and subsequently carried over to Czech Communists as well when these split off from the Social Democrats. After the Communist Party gained power in 1948, the word displaced all prior titles like pan, paní ("Mister", "Madam") and became the title used generally for everyone. Nowadays, it is used only in (actual or, more often, ironic) Communist context. After the Velvet Revolution, an attempt was made in the Czech Social Democratic Party to replace soudruh with přítel ("friend") as a form of an address, but it didn't catch on. A cognate to English word 'comrade', kamarád, means "friend" in Czech. It is a very commonly used word and it has no political connotations. A cognate (now obsolete) to the Russian word tovarishch, tovaryš, means "journeyman" in Czech and has no political connotations (compare Tovaryšstvo Ježíšovo, lit. "Jesus's Journeymen").
Czech
The word is kameraad. In Common Dutch the word is mostly reminiscent of communists, whereas in informal speech and dialects it can be used to indicate friends or acquaintances. It was used as a form of address in the Communist Party of the Netherlands, as well as in the pre-war National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands, the latter also using the female neologism kameraadske.[25] The pseudo-Russian word kameraadski is used informally as a sobriquet for a person with leftist sympathies.
Dutch
The word for comrade is kamarado either in the sense of a friend or a political fellow-traveller. In the latter case, when used in writing, it is often abbreviated to K-do. It is the preferred form of address among members of Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda. The word samideano, literally "same-thinker", usually refers to a fellow Esperantist.[26]
Esperanto
The word is seltsimees which originally comes from German Geselle. Having initially a neutral meaning, the term was later adapted by local communists. Today it has an ironical meaning, referring to Soviet times.
Estonian
The word is toveri which literally translates as 'companion'. This has a heavy socialist connotation, but may sometimes be used in humorous manner. Mates in an institution like school, jail or hospital could also be addressed thus, but not in the army.
Finnish
The word is camarade. It is mainly used by communists and can apply to classmates or friends.
French
The word is ამხანაგი (amkhanagi).
Georgian
In , the word is Kamerad for a male, or Kameradin for a female. The meaning is that of a fellow, a companion or an associate. Since Kamerad is the usual term for a fellow soldier in German military language, the word is associated with right-wing rather than left-wing groups. Communists and socialists, especially party members of the SED and SPD use the word Genosse (fem. Genossin; i.e. "partner", in the sense of a fellow member of a co-operative) with the socialist association that 'comrade' has in English.. The members of the Nazi party NSDAP used the variant Parteigenosse (lit. party-comrade).
German
The word is σύντροφος (syntrophos, m.) and συντρόφισσα (syntrophissa, f.), used by communists, socialists and other left-wing groups. Other meanings of this word are: mate, pal, friend, companion, even partner or associate etc.
Greek
The equivalent is Chaver (חבר), a word which can mean both 'friend' and 'member' (of a group or organization). During the time of Socialist Zionist political and ideological dominance of the 1930s to the 1960s, the word in a sense similar to English "comrade" was in widespread use, in the Kibbutz movement, the Histadrut trade unions, the driver-owned bus companies etc., though this implication is carried only when it is used as a title to precede a name, in which case it includes a definite article (e.g. החבר סטאלין). At present, its political use is considered old-fashioned, mainly restricted to Israeli Communists; the same word exists also in Yiddish, which is one possible origin of the colloquial Australian word cobber.) The Hebrew Chaver and the female Chavera are still widely used in a non-political sense, as meaning simply 'friend' (in certain contexts also meaning 'boyfriend'/'girlfriend').
Hebrew
The equivalent for comrade is kaamred (कामरेड) or saathi (साथी). It is widely used among leftist (communist) parties of India, e.g., Communist Party of India, Communist Party of India (Marxist), Revolutionary Socialist Party (India), Forward Bloc and others.
Hindi
The word for comrade is elvtárs; elv means 'principle' or 'tenet' while társ means 'fellow'. As the Hungarian Working People's Party gradually gained power after the Second World War, the word displaced all prior titles like úr ("Mister") and became the title used generally for everyone except for people who were obviously not "tenet fellows" e.g. those who committed political crime against the socialist state. After the democratic transition the word became obsolete and it is used derogatorily to address politicians on the political left.
Hungarian
The word for comrade is félagi, which is cognate to English “fellow”. It is used as a less intimate alternative to vinur (friend). It is also the word used for a "member" of club or association. When used as a title to precede a name (e.g., félagi Tító or félagi Dimitroff) it has a communist implication.
Icelandic
In , the word is kamerad. In the early days of independence, Bung, meaning "brother", was commonly used as an egalitarian form of address for people of any status.[27]
Indonesian
In the word for comrade is comrádaí, with a chara (friend) used as a term of address. Both expressions are used largely by Irish Republicans, Nationalism, Communists, and Socialists.
Irish
The word for comrade is compagno (male) or compagna (female), meaning "companion". This word is in widespread use among left-wing circles, including not just communists but also many socialists. The literal translation of the word comrade is camerata, with the specific meaning of "comrade-in-arms" or "fellow soldier": it is used by nationalist and militarist right-wing groups. Using one word or the other is a quick way to announce one's political views.
Italian
The word for comrade is 同志 (dōshi), using the same Han characters as in Chinese. The word is used to refer to like-minded persons and the usage is not necessarily limited to Communists, though the word is to some extent associated with Communism. The word should not be confused with a homonym 同士, which is a more commonly used postfix to show people sharing a certain property.
Japanese
In , the word ಗೆಳೆಯರೇ, ಗೆಳೆಯ (Geleya) is used among communist people's while addressing its people.
Kannada
In , the translation of "tovarish" was similar to other Turkic translations, "жолдас"; "joldas" Kazakh pronunciation: [ʐɔɫdɑs] (literally "co-traveller", most often used referring to friends and spouses) was used.
Kazakh
In , the word comrade (Khmer: សមមិត្ត Samakmit) was used by members of the Khmer Rouge during the communist rule of Pol Pot in 1975–1979 and by the Kampuchean United Front for National Salvation during the People's Republic of Kampuchea era.
Khmer
In , a good equivalent of the word would be 동무 (tongmu) or 동지 (tongji, senior comrade). Although the word was originally used by Korean people all over the Korean Peninsula, people living south of the 38th Parallel began avoiding using the word after a communist state was set up in the north. In North Korea, the word tongmu replaced all prior social titles and earned a new meaning as "a fellow man fighting for the revolution". The word originally meant “friend”. On the other hand, the word 동지 (tongji) is frequently used in North Korean state media to address senior state and party leaders such as Kim Jong-un.
Korean
In , the word Heval ("friend" or "companion on a long journey") is widely used among Kurdish political parties and organizations.
Kurdish
In , the word is biedrs for males and biedre or biedrene for females.
Latvian
In , the word is draugas for males and draugė for females; both of which originally meant 'friend'.
Lithuanian
In , the word is другар (drugar) for males and другарka (drugarka) for females.
Macedonian
In , the words Komrad, Kawan and Sahabat are used among socialist organizations.
Malay
In , the word സഖാവ് (sakhavu) (meaning friend, ally, partner) is used among communist organizations while addressing fellow members. Due to the strong presence of the Communist Party of India in Kerala, the word is almost exclusively used to refer to a member of the party or to imply an association with communism.
Malayalam
In , the word is camarada and compañero can be (and often is) used with no political connotation.
Mexico
In , the word is нөхөр (nökhör). It is still in use but less than before.
Mongolian
The equivalent for comrade is kaamred (कमरेड) or saathi (साथी) as in Hindi. It is used by communists in Nepal such as the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist Centre), Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist–Leninist), Janamorcha Nepal and others.
Nepali
In , the word is kamerat. It can be associated with communist usage, but more commonly refers simply to an associate, a co-worker (arbeidskamerat), or a classmate in school (klassekamerat or skolekamerat). In everyday use, the word kamerat on its own is considered a masculine term, referring to boys/men. For girls/women, the term venninne (female form of venn friend) is used instead. When joined with other words, such as klassekamerat, the word is gender neutral. (Although Norwegians would understand what is meant by klassevenninne, it would also sound awkward and somewhat archaic.)
Norwegian
In the , communist and left-leaning activists prefer the term kasama (roughly, companion), and the short form, Ka before the name (e.g. Ka Bel). Protestant (usually Evangelical) clerics and members of the Iglesia ni Cristo also use Ka before names or nicknames, but as a contraction of kapatíd ('brother'/'sister'), denoting spiritual brotherhood. Practitioners of law informally use the Spanish terms compañero and compañera when referring to each other, albeit without any socio-political connotation.
Philippines
In the , the word for comrade is malgury. It is used by and refers to communists, socialists, or supporters of the communist system across the Durand Line (i.e. in Afghanistan and Pakistan) by Pashto speakers. For the last decade or so it has also been used by the nationalists. The word is also used by common people both male and female for a very close friend.
Pashto language
In , the word is towarzysz, which has the same origin as the Russian word. In non-political sense, it means "companion".
Poland
In and Brazil, the word is camarada, now being commonly employed to refer to communists or supporters of the communist system (result of the overusage of the term in the post-revolutionary society). It is also prevalent in the army, and has been gaining popularity among nationalist movements. The term used among socialist activists nowadays tends to be companheiro / companheira although in Portugal camarada is still commonly used. Brazilian president Lula is widely known for addressing his political mates and supporters as companheiro, however this decreased during the last years of his presidential term, while it was very popular during the elections, often imitated by comedians who satirized Lula's idiosyncratic manners. The terms camarada and companheiro(s)/companheira(s) are also used without political connotations, meaning 'mate', 'partner', 'fella'.
Portugal
In the the word for comrade is Saathi (ਸਾਥੀ). However, the word "Comrade" itself, or ਕਾਮਰੇਡ, is used to refer to a communist or communist party member, and is often used as a more linguistically acceptable replacement for the word "communist," with the communist party often being called "The Comrades" or communist thought being called "Comrade Sochni."
Punjabi language
In the the word for comrade is Dosti as seen in the phrase Te vestinel o dosti Tito, te vestinena o jugoslovenske manusha or Long live comrade Tito and long live the Yugoslav people.
Romani language
In the exact translation is camarad, a neologism introduced from French in the 19th century, which does not bear a political connotation, referring mainly to wartime allies and friends. During the communist era an older term, tovarăș, derived from a Slavic source, was used to convey the political meaning.
Romanian
The equivalent for comrade is drug (друг) for males and drugarica (другарица) for females; it's also a regular and colloquial word for 'friend', although largely replaced by prijatelj and prijateljica in standard varieties of the language. Communist Party/League of Communists of Yugoslavia promoted the use of the term between the members and generally among the society throughout existence of the Socialist Yugoslavia, from World War II in early 1940s to Yugoslav Wars in early 1990s. It was not unusual to hear political leaders referring to their audience as drugarice i drugovi. Its intention was to emphasize empathy and equality, and it is still used by the most fervocious adherents of leftist ideologies.
Serbo-Croatian
The word for comrade is súdruh (m.) and súdružka (f.). The term kamarát is used too, but it is normally translated as friend.
Slovak
The word for comrade is tovariš (m.) and tovarišica (f.), first attested in the 16th century. After the Second World War it was also colloquially used for 'teacher' (as an elliptical form of the official tovariš učitelj (m.) and tovarišica učiteljica (f.) 'comrade teacher'). After 1991 it rapidly fell out of use as a general term of address, but is still used when expressing comradeship among individuals.
Slovenian
The word for comrade is Sangat, سنگت; it is normally translated as friend.
Sindhi
The word for comrade is jaalle; it is normally translated as friend. It was widely used by the erstwhile Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (1969-1991). The word fell out of use after the fall of the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party.
Somali
Cuba
In , the word is සහෝදරයා sahoðarayaa, which literally means brother.
Sinhala
In , the equivalent word is ndugu for brother-in-arms, or dada for a female comrade. The word ndugu is still used in formerly socialist Tanzania as a way of showing (political) solidarity.
Swahili
The word is kamrat. Although it can be associated with communist usage, it can equally well refer simply to a friend, a co-worker (arbetskamrat), or a classmate in school (klasskamrat or skolkamrat). Unlike the corresponding Norwegian word, the term is commonly used for both boys and girls in non-communist usage. See also Idrottsföreningen Kamraterna
Swedish
The word for comrade is Thozhar (தோழர்) and is a regular word for 'friend'.
Tamil
In , the national language of Timor Leste, the word camarada is used – a direct loan from the language of the former colonial power, Portugal. During the 1970s the word was a common term of address within the left-leaning Fretilin party, and after the Indonesian invasion, continued to be used by the Fretilin associated guerrillas waging a war of resistance in the jungle. Though largely falling out of use since 1999 Fretilin politicians and veterans of the guerrillas struggle continue to use the term to refer to each other.
Tetun
The word sahai (สหาย) was used in the communist movement.
Thai
The word yoldaş (literally 'co-traveller') has become used within the communist movement, yol meaning 'way' and 'cause'. Ottoman Janissaries used to call each other yoldaş (یولداش 'comrade') or yoldaşân (یولداشان, plural: 'comrades').[28] Turkish communists, being morally affected by Bektashi values of the older era, adopted this term. In the climate of harsh anticommunist repression the word largely disappeared from common usage. Yoldaş is also a male name in Turkish.
Turkish
In the , political use of the term comrade is strongly associated with both Communism and, historically, Fascism. However it is still used as an informal form of address among some Labour Party members, and in a more serious manner by many smaller parties of the left. Use of the term is generally restricted to people with whom the speaker agrees politically. It is usually written in full, the abbreviation Cde being associated with southern African usage. The honorific terms sister and brother, also declining in usage, are more politically inclusive, encompassing everyone from the centre-left to the far-left, without necessarily indicating complete political agreement. All three terms are occasionally used in a mocking or patronising manner by political opponents. On the far right, comrade was the standard form of address between members of the British Union of Fascists and featured widely in their publications and marching songs.
United Kingdom
In the , the word comrade carries a strong connotation with Communism, Marxism–Leninism, and the former Soviet Union. Especially during the Cold War, to address someone as "comrade" marked either the speaker, person addressed, or both as suspected communist sympathizers. It is frequently used ironically in that way. In addition, it is still used in its generic context by some American socialists. Despite this, it has been adopted into the U.S. Army Soldier's Creed in the statement "I will never leave a fallen comrade". It is also used at meetings of the Veterans of Foreign Wars to address a fellow member.
United States
The word is đồng chí, which is derived from Chinese 同志. Due to the influence of Chinese revolutionary groups during the early 20th century on the Vietnamese independence movement, its usage was first seen among members of the Kuomintang-backed Vietnamese Nationalist Party and then later spread to members of the Vietnamese Communist Party. It is still being used openly in public to address state and Communist Party leaders as well as among soldiers and military officers in the People's Army of Vietnam.
