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Taoism

Taoism (/ˈd.ɪzəm/ , /ˈt.ɪzəm/ ) or Daoism is a diverse tradition indigenous to China, variously characterized as both a philosophy and a religion. Taoism emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao—generally understood as being the impersonal, enigmatic process of transformation ultimately underlying reality.[1][2] The concept originates in the Chinese word (pinyin: dào; Wade–Giles: tao4), which has numerous related meanings: possible English translations include 'way', 'road', and 'technique'. Taoist thought has informed the development of various practices within the Taoist tradition and beyond, including forms of meditation, astrology, qigong, feng shui, and internal alchemy. A common goal of Taoist practice is self-cultivation resulting in a deeper appreciation of the Tao, and thus a more harmonious existence. There are different formulations of Taoist ethics, but there is generally emphasis on virtues such as effortless action, naturalness or spontaneity, simplicity, and the three treasures of compassion, frugality, and humility. Many Taoist terms lack simple definitions and have been translated in several different ways.

This article is about Taoism as a tradition from China. For Taoism as a new religious movement in the West, see History of Taoism § Taoism in the West.

Taoism

Dàojiào

"Religion of the Way"

Dàojiào

Dàojiào

ㄉㄠˋ   ㄐㄧㄠˋ

Dawjiaw

Tao4-chiao4

Dào-jiào

Dàujyàu

Doh goh

dou6 gaau3

Tō-kàu

Tō-kàu

dáw kæ̀w

*[kə.l]ˤuʔ s.kˤraw-s

Đạo giáo

道教

도교

道敎

道教

どうきょう

ドウキョウ

Dō kyō

Dō kyō

Dô kyô

The core of Taoist thought crystallized during the early Warring States period, c. the 4th and 5th centuries BCE, during which the epigrammatic Tao Te Ching and the anecdotal Zhuangzi—widely regarded as the fundamental texts of Taoist philosophy—were largely composed. They form the core of a body of Taoist writings accrued over the following centuries, which was assembled by monks into the Daozang canon starting in the 5th century CE. Early Taoism drew upon diverse influences, including the Shang and Zhou state religions, Naturalism, Mohism, Confucianism, various Legalist theories, as well as the Book of Changes and Spring and Autumn Annals.[3][4][5] Later, when Buddhism was introduced to China, the two systems began influencing one another, with long-running discourses shared between Taoists and Buddhists; the distinct Mahayana tradition of Zen that emerged during the Tang dynasty incorporates many ideas from Taoism.


Though Taoism often lacks the motivation for strong hierarchies, Taoist philosophy has often served as a foundation for theories of politics and warfare, and Taoist organizations with diverse agendas have existed throughout Chinese history. During the late Han dynasty, Taoist secret societies precipitated the Yellow Turban Rebellion, attempting to create what has been characterized as a Taoist theocracy. Many denominations of Taoism recognize deities, often those present in other traditions, where they are venerated as superhuman figures exemplifying Taoist virtues. The syncretic nature of the tradition presents particular difficulties in attempting to characterize its practice. Since Taoist thought has been deeply rooted in Chinese culture for millennia, it is often unclear whether one should be considered a "Taoist". The status of daoshi, or 'Taoist master', is traditionally attributed only to clergy in Taoist organizations; these figures usually distinguish between their traditions and others throughout Chinese folk religion.The gods and immortals(神仙) believed in by Taoism can be roughly divided into two categories, namely "gods" and "xian". "Gods" refers to deities, of which there are many kinds. "Xian" were immortal beings with vast supernatural powers, although the word was also used as a descriptor for a principled and moral person.[6]


Today, Taoism is one of five religious doctrines officially recognized by the Chinese government, also having official status in Hong Kong and Macau.[7] It is considered a major religion in Taiwan,[8] and also has significant populations of adherents throughout the Sinosphere and Southeast Asia. In the West, Taoism has taken on diverse forms, both those hewing to historical practice, as well as highly synthesized practices variously characterized as new religious movements.

or quietistic meditation, which was the main method of classical Taoism and can be found in classic texts like the Zhuangzi, where it is termed "fasting the heartmind" (xinzhai).[269] This practice is also variously termed "embracing the one" (baoyi), "guarding the one" (shouyi), "quiet sitting" (jingzuo), and "sitting forgetfulness" (zuowang).[270] According to Louis Komjathy, this type of meditation "emphasizes emptiness and stillness; it is contentless, non-conceptual, and non-dualistic. One simply empties the heart-mind of all emotional and intellectual content."[270] The texts of classical Taoism state that this meditation leads to the dissolution of the self and any sense of separate dualistic identity.[271] Sima Chengzhen's Zuowang lun is a key text that outlines this method.[271] The practice is also closely connected with the virtue of wuwei (inaction).[272]

Apophatic

Concentration meditation, focusing the mind on one theme, like the breath, a sound, a part of the body (like one of the dantiens), a diagram or mental image, a deity etc. A subset of this is called "guarding the one", which is interpreted in different ways.

Observation (guan)—according to , this method "encourages openness to all sorts of stimuli and leads to a sense of free-flowing awareness. It often begins with the recognition of physical sensations and subtle events in the body but may also involve paying attention to outside occurrences."[273] Guan is associated with deep listening and energetic sensitivity.[274] The term most often refers to "inner observation" (neiguan), a practice that developed through Buddhist influence (see: Vipaśyanā).[260] Neiguan entails developing introspection of one's body and mind, which includes being aware of the various parts of the body as well as the various deities residing in the body.[268]

Livia Kohn

("post standing")—standing meditation in various postures.

Zhan zhuang

Visualization (cunxiang) of various mental images, including deities, cosmic patterns, the lives of saints, various lights in the bodies organs, etc. This method is associated with the Supreme Clarity school, which first developed it.

[260]

The , which was later adopted as a Taoist text by Taoists (who also saw master Mo – Mozi – as a Taoist immortal and included the Mozi into the Taoist canon).[308]

Mozi

The (Writings of Master Han Fei), a Legalist work that also contains key Taoist themes, such as wu-wei.

Han Feizi

() classics like the Analects and the Mengzi.

Confucian

, which is widely quoted in early Taoist sources.

Lüshi Chunqiu

(The Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor), an ancient Chinense medical text that was influential on Taoist inner cultivation theory.

Huangdi Neijing

(c. 139 BCE), an ancient source that includes Taoist, Confucianist, and Legalist ideas.

Huainanzi

, which discusses Taoist ideas in several chapters.

Guanzi

BBC religions – Taoism

on In Our Time at the BBC

Taoism

. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

"Taoist philosophy"

Chinese Text Project

Early Taoist texts

Patheos Library – Taoism

at the Internet Sacred Text Archive

Taoist Texts

from the University of Michigan Museum of Art

Collection: "Daoism/Taoism"