Arab migrations to the Maghreb
The Arab migrations to the Maghreb[a] involved successive waves of migration and settlement by Arab people in the Maghreb region of North Africa (excluding Egypt), encompassing modern-day Algeria, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia. The process took place over several centuries, lasting from the early 7th century to the 17th century. The Arab migrants hailed from the Middle East, particularly the Arabian Peninsula, with later groups arriving from the Levant and Iraq.
Date
c. 7th century — 17th century
See causes
Arab population growth, Arabization, Islamization and displacement
The influx of Arabs to the Maghreb began in the 7th century with the Arab conquest of the Maghreb, when Arab armies conquered the region as part of the early Muslim conquests. This initial wave of Arab migration was followed by subsequent periods of migration and settlement, notably during the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates and later Arab dynasties. However, the most significant wave of Arab migration occurred in the 11th century with the arrival of more Bedouin tribes from the Arabian Peninsula, such as Banu Hilal, Banu Sulaym, and Maqil.[7] The last significant wave of Arab migration to the Maghreb was from Al-Andalus in the 17th century as a result of the Reconquista. These migrants established numerous Arab empires and dynasties in the Maghreb, such as the Aghlabids, Idrisids, Sulaymanids, Salihids, Fatimids, Saadians and 'Alawites.
The Arab migrations to the Maghreb had a profound impact on the demographics and culture of the Maghreb. It resulted in significant Arab demographic growth, forced displacement and Arabization of the Berber and Punic populations and spread of the Arabic language and Arab culture throughout the region. The descendants of the Arab settlers in the Maghreb are known as Maghrebi Arabs. According to Charles-André Julien, a specialist in North African history, the Hilalian invasion was "the most important event of the entire medieval period in the Maghrib".[8]
Causes
There were multiple factors that caused Arabs to migrate to the Maghreb. The first Arabs arrived in the 7th century with the goals of conquering Byzantine territories in the Maghreb and spreading Islam to the local populations, as well as protecting Egypt "from flank attack by Byzantine Cyrene" according to historian Will Durant.[49] The later Arabs that arrived in the 11th century were driven by factors such as instability and political unrest in the Mashriq, compelling them to settle in the Maghreb in search of security and stability. Arab immigration from the Mashriq to the Maghreb increased during periods of unrest and disorder.[18] A notable example of this was during the period of severe drought in Egypt due to a fall in the level of the Nile river, as well as plague and economic crisis. This encouraged Arab Bedouin tribes such as Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym to settle in the Maghreb, which enjoyed a better economic situation at the time. The Fatimid caliph further persuaded them to march westwards by giving each tribesman a camel and money and helping them cross from the east to the west bank of the Nile.[3]
Other Arab nomads were encouraged to settle in the Maghreb by local Arab dynasties, such as the Idrisids, Aghlabids, Salihids and Fatimids, to fulfil the Arabization of the non-Arab populations.[18] Commercial activities such as the Trans-Saharan trade boosted the expansion of Islam and spread of Arabic, and trade with the Mashriq brought several Arab groups to the Maghreb.[18] The Arab emigrants to the Maghreb from the 15th to the 17th century were largely refugees from Al-Andalus who left Christian Spanish persecution following the Fall of Granada in 1492.[44]
Impact
Arabization
A major effect of the Arab migrations to the Maghreb was the Arabization of its population. With the large-scale arrival of Arab migrants, the indigenous Berber population underwent a process of Arabization, in which they adopted Arab culture and language. The early wave of migration prior to the 11th century contributed to the Berber adoption of Arab culture. Furthermore, the Arabic language spread during this period and drove Latin into extinction in the cities. The Arabization took place around Arab major towns through the influence of Arabs in the cities and rural areas surrounding them.[18] Additionally, the Punic population of the Maghreb underwent Arabization, facilitated by the linguistic similarities between their Punic language and Arabic, as both belonged to the Semitic language family and shared numerous grammatical and lexical similarities.[50]
The migration of Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym in the 11th century had a much greater influence on the process of Arabization than the migrations beforehand. It played a major role in spreading Bedouin Arabic to rural areas such as the countryside and steppes, and as far as the southern areas near the Sahara.[18] It also heavily transformed the culture of the Maghreb into Arab culture, and spread Bedouin nomadism in areas where agriculture was previously dominant.[15] These Bedouin tribes accelerated and deepened the Arabization process, since the Berber population was gradually assimilated by the newcomers and had to share with them pastures and seasonal migration paths. By around the 15th century, the region of modern-day Tunisia had already been almost completely Arabized.[51]
This resulted in the development of Maghrebi Arabic, a variety which traces its origins to the Bedouin Arabic varieties that were introduced to the Maghreb by Hilalian tribes in the 11th century, which eventually became widely spoken by the vast majority of Maghrebis. The diverse linguistic landscape of the Maghreb led to the choice of Banu Hilal's Arabic as the lingua franca of the Maghreb.[52]
Islamization
The Umayyad Caliphate played a significant role in Islamizing the population of the Maghreb. Umayyad campaigns into the Maghreb were highly successful. In 705, Musa ibn Nusayr launched a great campaign to the western Maghreb and seized most cities there. This allowed him to impose his authority over the entire Maghreb, so he then continued the program of spreading Islam and the Arabic language through missionary activity and chose seventeen religious scholars to convert the locals. Many people became Muslims at the hands of these scholars and the inhabitants of the Maghreb gradually converted to Islam.[3] Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz sent to the governor of Ifriqiya Ismail ibn Abdallah all scholars and men of culture, who were ordered to teach the religion of Islam.[3] They were distributed around the regions of the Maghreb. In less than one century, the great majority of Christians converted to Islam with 'great zeal that they sought martyrdom', and the final conversions took place in the first two centuries after the hijrah.[3] The Berbers were the only people to be incorporated into the Umayyad armies and to have converted to Islam on such a large scale.[21]
Contemporary demographics
Arab tribes
These Arab tribes settled in the Maghreb and emerged into several contemporary sub-tribes. The most notable Arab tribes of Morocco include Abda, Ahl Rachida, Azwafit, Banu Ma'qil, Banu Tamim, Beni Ahsen, Beni 'Amir, Beni Guil, Beni Ḥassān, Banu Hilal, Beni Khirane, Beni Mathar, Beni Moussa, Banu Sulaym, Beni Zemmour, Chaouia, Doukkala, Hyayna, Khlout, Mzab, Oulad Delim, Oulad Tidrarin, Oulad Zyan, Rahamna, Sless, Zaër, Zyayda. There are several tribes of Bedouin origin throughout Tunisia, such as Banu Hudhayl and Shammar, however they are not very nomadic nowadays and they mostly live in towns. The major Arab tribes in Libya are Qadhadhfa, Magarha, Warfalla, Firjan, Saʿada and Murabtin, Masamir, Zuwayya, Awlad Busayf, Awlad Sulayman and Abaydat. The most well known Arab tribes of Algeria are Chaamba, Dhouaouda, Doui-Menia, Ghenanma, Beni Hassan, Ouled Djerir, Awlad Sidi Shaykh, Banu Tamim, Banu Hilal, Banu Sulaym, Thaaliba, Ouled Nail, Beni Amer, Hamyan and many more. Bedouin tribes in Algeria primarily live in the Algerian Desert.[63]