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Chinese philosophy

Chinese philosophy originates in the Spring and Autumn period and Warring States period, during a period known as the "Hundred Schools of Thought",[1] which was characterized by significant intellectual and cultural developments.[1] Although much of Chinese philosophy begun in the Warring States period (475-221 BCE), elements of Chinese philosophy have existed for several thousand years. Some can be found in the I Ching (the Book of Changes), an ancient compendium of divination, which dates back to at least 672 BCE.[2]

Chinese philosophy

中國哲學

中国哲学

Zhōngguó zhéxué

Zhōngguó zhéxué

ㄓㄨㄥ ㄍㄨㄛˊ ㄓㄜˊ ㄒㄩㄝˊ

Jonggwo jershyue

Chung1-kuo2 che2-hsüeh2

Jhong-guó jhé-syué

Tson-kueʔ tseʔ-ghoʔ

Zung1-get5 ziet5-hok6

Jūng-gwok jit-hohk

zung1 gwok3 zit3 hok6

Tiong-kok tiat-ha̍k

Triết học Trung Quốc

哲學中國

중국 철학

中國哲學

Junggung cheolhak

Junggung cheolhak

中国哲学

ちゅうごくてつがく

チュウゴクテツガク

Chūgoku tetsugaku

Chūgoku tetsugaku

Tyûgoku tetugaku

It was during the Warring States era that what Sima Tan termed the major philosophical schools of China—Confucianism, Legalism, and Taoism—arose, along with philosophies that later fell into obscurity, like Agriculturalism, Mohism, Chinese Naturalism, and the Logicians. Even in modern society, Confucianism is still the creed of etiquette for Chinese society.[3]

Early beliefs[edit]

Early Shang dynasty thought was based on cycles like the 10 stems and 12 earthly branches. This notion stems from what the people of the Shang dynasty could observe around them: day and night cycles, the seasons progressed again and again, and even the moon waxed and waned until it waxed again. Thus, this notion, which remained relevant throughout Chinese history, reflects the order of nature. In juxtaposition, it also marks a fundamental distinction from western philosophy, in which the dominant view of time is a linear progression. During the Shang, Ancestor worship was present and universally recognized.


When the Shang were overthrown by the Zhou a new political, religious and philosophical concept was introduced called the Mandate of Heaven. This mandate was said to be taken when rulers became unworthy of their position and provided a justification for Zhou rule it is said that the Duke of Zhou made the early solar terms by measuring with a gnomon that was added to make the complete solar terms. He is also said to have used try squares and wrote the Zhoubi Suanjing[5] with his astrologer. Several early beliefs might be found in the Guicang and perhaps the earliest Chinese book, the small calendar of the Xia in Da Dai Liji, though debated to exist the Xia dynasty is said to be its origin.[6][7]

Overview[edit]

Confucianism developed during the Spring and Autumn period from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius (551–479 BCE), who considered himself a retransmitter of Zhou values. His philosophy concerns the fields of ethics and politics, emphasizing personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice, traditionalism, and sincerity. The Analects stress the importance of ritual, but also the importance of ren, which loosely translates as "human-heartedness",[8] Confucianism, along with Legalism, is responsible for creating the world's first meritocracy, which holds that one's status should be determined by education and character rather than ancestry, wealth, or friendship.[9] Confucianism was and continues to be a major influence in Chinese culture, the state of China and the surrounding areas of East Asia.


Before the Han dynasty the largest rivals to Confucianism were Chinese Legalism, and Mohism. Confucianism largely became the dominant philosophical school of China during the early Han dynasty following the replacement of its contemporary, the more Taoist Huang-Lao.[10] Legalism as a coherent philosophy disappeared largely due to its relationship with the unpopular authoritarian rule of Qin Shi Huang, however, many of its ideas and institutions would continue to influence Chinese philosophy throughout the Han dynasty and after.


Mohism, though initially popular due to its emphasis on brotherly love versus harsh Legalism, fell out of favour during the Han dynasty due to the efforts of Confucians in establishing their views as political orthodoxy. The Six Dynasties era saw the rise of the Xuanxue philosophical school and the maturation of Chinese Buddhism, which had entered China from India during the Late Han dynasties. By the time of the Tang dynasty five-hundred years after Buddhism's arrival into China, it had transformed into a thoroughly Chinese religious philosophy dominated by the school of Zen Buddhism. Neo-Confucianism became highly popular during the Song dynasty and Ming dynasty due in large part to the eventual combination of Confucian and Buddhist and even Taoist Philosophy.


During the 19th and 20th centuries, Chinese philosophy integrated concepts from Western philosophy. Anti-Qing dynasty revolutionaries, involved in the Xinhai Revolution, saw Western philosophy as an alternative to traditional philosophical schools; students in the May Fourth Movement called for completely abolishing the old imperial institutions and practices of China. During this era, Chinese scholars attempted to incorporate Western philosophical ideologies such as democracy, Marxism, socialism, liberalism, republicanism, anarchism and nationalism into Chinese philosophy. The most notable examples are Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of the People ideology and Mao Zedong's Maoism, a variant of Marxism–Leninism.[11] In the modern People's Republic of China, the official ideology is Deng Xiaoping's "market economy socialism".


Although the People's Republic of China has been historically hostile to the philosophy of ancient China, the influences of past are still deeply ingrained in the Chinese culture. In the post-Chinese economic reform era, modern Chinese philosophy has reappeared in forms such as New Confucianism. As in Japan, philosophy in China has become a melting pot of ideas. It accepts new concepts, while attempting also to accord old beliefs their due. Chinese philosophy still carries profound influence amongst the people of East Asia, and even Southeast Asia.

Mid to late imperial era philosophy[edit]

History[edit]

Neo-Confucianism was a revived version of old Confucian principles that appeared around the Song dynasty, with Buddhist, Taoist, and Legalist features. The first philosophers, such as Shao Yong, Zhou Dunyi and Chang Zai, were cosmologists and worked on the I Ching. The Cheng brothers, Cheng Yi and Cheng Hao, are considered the founders of the two main schools of thought of Neo-Confucianism: the School of Principle the first, the School of Mind the latter.


The School of Principle gained supremacy during the Song dynasty with the philosophical system elaborated by Zhu Xi, which became mainstream and officially adopted by the government for the imperial examinations under the Yuan dynasty. The School of Mind was developed by Lu Jiuyuan, Zhu Xi's main rival, but was soon forgotten. Only during the Ming dynasty was the School of Mind revived by Wang Shouren, whose influence is equal to that of Zhu Xi. This school was particularly important in Japan.


During the Qing dynasty many philosophers objected against Neo-Confucianism and there was a return to the Han dynasty Confucianism, and also the reprise of the controversy between Old Text and New Text. In this period also started the penetration of Western culture, but most Chinese thought that the Westerners were maybe more advanced in technology and warfare, but that China had primacy in moral and intellectual fields.


Chinese culture was highly influential on the traditions of other East Asian states, and its philosophy directly influenced Korean philosophy, Vietnamese philosophy and Japanese philosophy.[21] During later Chinese dynasties like the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), as well as in the Korean Joseon dynasty (1392–1897), a resurgent Neo-Confucianism led by thinkers such as Wang Yangming (1472–1529) became the dominant school of thought and was promoted by the imperial state. In Japan, the Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1867) was also strongly influenced by Confucian philosophy.[22]

Confucius

Mencius

Laozi

Zhuang Zhou

proposed ethical egoism and founded Yangism.

Yang Zhu

the founder of Mohist school.

Mozi

Legalist founder and pivotal Qin reformer

Shang Yang

one of the most notable theoreticians of Legalism

Han Fei

major proponent and practitioner of Legalism

Li Si

(the Way, or one's doctrine)

Dao

(virtue, power)

De

(principle, Law)

Li

(vital energy or material force)

Qi

太極The (Great Heavenly Axis) forms a unity of the two complementary polarities, Yin and Yang. The word Yin originally referred to a hillside facing away from the sun. Philosophically, it stands the dark, passive, feminine principle; whereas Yang (the hillside facing the sun) stands for the bright, active, masculine principle. Yin and Yang are not antagonistic, they alternate in inverse proportion to one another—like the rise and fall of a wave and are known by their comparison.

Tai-chi

Although the individual philosophical schools differ considerably, they nevertheless share a common vocabulary and set of concerns.


Among the terms commonly found in Chinese philosophy are:


Among the commonalities of Chinese philosophies are:

Bo Mou (Editor), History of Chinese Philosophy, Routledge, 2009.

Chan, Wing-tsit (1963), A Sourcebook of Chinese Philosophy, Princeton: Princeton University Press,  978-0-691-07137-4

ISBN

(Editor), Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy, Routledge, 2003.

Antonio S. Cua

A History of Chinese Philosophy (Princeton Paperbacks), tr. Derk Bodde, 1983.

Feng Youlan

Chinese Thought, from Confucius to Mao Zedong, 1971.

Herrlee Glessner Creel

A. C. Graham, Disputers of the Tao; Philosophical Argument in Ancient China, 1989.

Christoph Harbsmeier, Logic and Language in Ancient China, Joseph Needham, Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 7, Part I, Cambridge University Press, 1998.

and Bryan W. Van Norden (Editors), Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy, 2nd edition, Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2005.

Philip J. Ivanhoe

Karyn Lai, Introduction to Chinese Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, 2008.

The Importance of Living, William Morrow Paperbacks, 1998.

Lin Yutang

Searching for the Way: Theory of Knowledge in Pre-modern and Modern Chinese Philosophy Hong Kong Chinese University Press, 2008.

Jana S. Rošker

Chinese Thought. From Confucius to Cook Ding. London: Penguin, 2019.

Roel Sterckx

Ways of Heaven. An Introduction to Chinese Thought. New York: Basic Books, 2019.

Roel Sterckx

and Bryan W. Van Norden (Editors), Readings in Later Chinese Philosophy: Han Dynasty to the 20th Century, Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2014.

Justin Tiwald

Introduction to Classical Chinese Philosophy, Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2011.

Bryan W. Van Norden

Three Ways of Thought in Ancient China, 1983.

Arthur Waley

Perkins, Franklin. . In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

"Metaphysics in Chinese Philosophy"

Wong, David. . In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

"Comparative Philosophy: Chinese and Western"

Rošker, Jana. . In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

"Epistemology in Chinese Philosophy"

Littlejohn, Ronnie. . Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

"Chinese Philosophy: Overview of Topics"

Sikri, Rohan. . Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

"Language in Classical Chinese Philosophy"

Yu, Yih-Hsien. . Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

"Modern Chinese Philosophy"

at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project

Chinese philosophy

Article "The Chinese Concept of Space"

Article "The Chinese Concept of Time"

The Hundred Schools of Thought

– Chinese philosophy texts in classical Chinese with English and modern Chinese translations

Chinese Text Project

at Curlie

Eastern Philosophy

Henry Zhao, New Left Review 44, March–April 2007

Contesting Confucius

Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, 1751–1772, "" [in French]

"Philosophie des Chinois

– A Group Blog of Chinese and Comparative Philosophy

Warp Weft and Way